DEPARTMENT  OF 

qJ l.fa. jj 

OF  THE  W 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  | 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS.  | 

Books  are  not  to  be  taken  from  the  Library  Room.,* 


The  person  charging  this  material  is  re- 
sponsible for  its  return  to  the  library  from 
which  it  was  withdrawn  on  or  before  the 
Latest  Date  stamped  below. 

Theft,  mutilation,  and  underlining  of  books  are  reasons 
for  disciplinary  action  and  may  result  in  dismissal  from 
the  University. 

To  renew  call  Telephone  Center,  333-8400 


« 


AC  H5  CULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT  STATION 

JUN  23  1838 
UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS, 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


https://archive.org/details/jacquesnewmanual00jacq_0 


ACR-  ULTURA! 
EXPERIMENT  STATION 

JACQUES’  UAL 

r:  :tkhsit-;  of  Illinois. 

OF  THE 

Jfitnn  anil  §arn-|LuA 

EMBRACING 


PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE,  AGRICULTURE,  AND 
CATTLE,  HORSE  AND  SHEEP  HUSBANDRY. 

WITH  INSTRUCTIONS  TO 


CULTIVATE  VEGETABLES,  FRUIT,  FLOWERS,  ALL  THE  FIELD 
CROPS,  EXECUTE  THE  DETAILS  OF  FARM  WORK,  AND 
BREED  AND  REAR  THE  VARIOUS  SPECIES 
OF  DOMESTIC  ANXMAUA 


By  D.  H.  JACQUES 

AUTHOR  OP  “ THE  HOUSE,”  “ HOW  TO  DO  BUSINESS,”  ETW. 


and  Bevi$sd  Edition, 


NEW  YORK: 

THE  AMERICAN  NEWS  COMPANY 

39  AND  41  CHAMBERS  STREET. 


r 


THE  GARDEN: 

A MANUAL 

OF 


^radical  fudititlian; 

OR,  HOW  TO  CULTIVATE 

VEGETABLES,  FRUITS,  AND  FLOWERS. 


EMBRACING 

AN  EXPOSITION  OF  THE  NATURE  AND  ACTION  OF  SOILS  AND  MANURES  AND  THE 
STRUCTURE  AND  GROWTH  OF  PLANT8  j DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  FORMING  A 

garden;  description  of  implements  and  fixtures;  INSTRUC- 
TIONS FOR  SOWINO,  TRANSPLANTING,  BUDDING,  GRAFTING,  AND 
CULTIVATING  VEGETABLES,  FRUITS,  AND  FLOWERS  J 

WITH  A CHAPTER  ON 


(DvuaroftttiU  Sms  and 


By  D.  H.  JACQUES, 

Author  of  “The  Farm,”  “The  House,”  “The  Barn- Yard,”  “How 
to  do  Business,”  “How  to  Behave,”  xto. 


Gardening  was  the  primitive  employment  of  the  first  man  ; and  the  first  of  men , among  his  descen- 
dant*,, have  ever  been  attached  to  tnat  occupation.  Indeed,  we  can  hardly  form  an  idea  of  human 
felicity,  in  which  a garden  L>  not  one  of  its  most  prominent  characteristics.— T.  G.  Fimsmdkn. 


REVISED  EDITION. 


NEW  YORK: 

THE  AMERICAN  NEWS  COMPANY 

39  AND  41  CHAMBERS  STREET. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1S70,  by 
GEO.  E.  WOODWARD, 

In  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the 
Southern  District  of  New  York. 


PREFACE 


There  are  many  excellent  works  on  Gardening  in  the  English 
language ; hut  there  seemed  to  he  room  and  a demand  for 
another.  No  other  work  fills  just  the  place  that  this  is  intended 
to  fill — no  other  quite  meets  the  popular  want  which  we  have 
aimed  to  satisfy  in  this. 

We  saw  the  need  of  a small,  cheap  work,  embracing  not  only 
brief,  simple,  and  easily  understood  directions  for  the  cultivation 
of  vegetables,  fruits,  and  flowers,  but  also  a succinct  exposition 
of  the  theory  of  horticulture,  as  deduced  from  the  nature  of 
soils  and  manures,  and  the  laws  of  vegetable  life  and  growth ; 
to  give  the  reader  something  to  fall  back  upon,  whenever  the 
practical  instructions,  which  can  not  be  adapted  to  every  change 
of  circumstances,  shall  fail  to  furnish  a sufficient  guide.  How 
well  we  have  succeeded  in  meeting  this  need  we  leave  the  reader 
to  judge.  We  will  only  say,  that  our  little  book  has  been  care- 
fully prepared,  and  combines  the  results  of  experience,  observa- 
tion, and  study.  In  preparing  it,  we  have  aimed  simply  at  me - 
fulness , and  have  made  no  effort  for  the  attainment  of  any 
further  originality  than  the  end  in  view  required.  We  are  neces- 
sarily placed  under  heavy  obligations  to  our  predecessors  in  the 
walks  of  horticultural  literature  ; but  what  we  have  derived  from 
them  has,  in  most  cases,  been  re-written,  and  so  modified,  to 
adapt  it  to  our  purpose,  that  formal  credit  has,  except  in  a few 


a.  a 


vi 


Preface 


instances,  been  impracticable.  Among  the  numerous  works  con 
suited,  we  take  pleasure  in  acknowledging  our  indebtedness  for 
valuable  aid  to  each  and  all  of  the  following  : 

^Loudon’s  Encyclopedia  of  Gardening. 

°Mrs.  Loudon’s  Gardening  for  Ladies 

Delamer’s  Kitchen  Garden. 

“ Flower  Garden. 

Neill’s  Gardener’s  Companion. 

°Buist’s  Family  Kitchen  Gardener. 

Fessenden’s  American  Kitchen  Gardener. 

Every  Lady  Her  Own  Flower  Gardener. 

Barry’s  Fruit  Garden. 

^Downing’s  Fruits  and  Fruit-Trees. 

sjaques’  Fruits  and  Fruit-Trees. 

Tucker’s  Annual  Begister. 

Farm  and  Garden  Essays. 

Thorburn’s  Descriptive  Catalogue*. 

* White’s  Gardening  for  the  South. 

Horticulturist. 

Country  Gentleman. 

^Southern  Cultivator. 

Allen’s  American  Farm  Book. 

Boussingault’s  Economie  Rurale. 

Downing’s  Landscape  Gardening. 

S'Lindley’s  Theory  of  Horticulture. 

Gray’s  Botanical  Text-Book. 

° Darby’s  Botany  of  the  Southern  States. 

To  the  works  marked  thus  (°)  we  are  under  special  obligations, 
either  for  matter  derived  from  them,  or  for  valuable  facts  or  sug- 
gestions made  more  indirectly  available. 

Trusting  that  this  little  manual  will  be  found  worthy  of  a 
measure  of  the  favor  with  which  his  previous  humble  attempts 
at  usefulness  has  been  received,  the  author  now  submits  it  to  the 
judgment  of  the  great  Public. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  Garden  of  Eden— History  of  Gardening— Attractions— No  Fruits  like  Oaf 
Own— Gardening  favorable  to  Health — The  Science  of  Horticulture— Object 
of  this  Work— How  to  Use  it Page  9-11 

I.— STRUCTURE  AND  GROWTH  OF  PLANTS. 

Germination— Conditions  Essential  to  Germination— Time  Required— The 
Process — The  Root — How  Roots  Grow — Functions  of  the  Root — Kinds 
of  Roots — The  Stem-Structure— Uses— Leaves— Structure  and  Functions — 
Flowers  and  their  Structure — Fruit— Growth  and  Ripening — The  Food  of 
Plants — State  in  which  it  must  be  Taken  up— Conditions  Essential  to  Growth 
— Warmth,  Moisture,  Food,  Air,  Light 13-29 

H.—  SOILS  AND  MANURES. 

Classification  of  Soils — Heavy  Soils— Light  Soils — Loamy  Soils— Calcareous 
Soils — Marley  Soils— Vegetable  Mold— Alluvial  Soils — Subsoils — Improve- 
ment of  Soils — Manures— Theory  of  Manures — Composts 80-40 

HI.— FORMATION  OF  A GARDEN. 

Situation— Exposure — Size  and  Shape — Laying  Out— Fencing — Hedges— Prep- 
aration of  the  Soil— Draining— Trenching— Subsoil  Plowing 41-46 

IV.  — IMPLEMENTS  AND  FIXTURES. 

The  Various  Implements  Required— Care  of  Implements— Fixtures — The 
Walled  Pit— Hot  Beds— Trellises— Rustic  Structures 46-60 

V. — HORTICULTURAL  PROCESSES. 

Stirring  the  Soil -Applying  Manures— Forcing— Sowing  Seeds— Transplanting 
— Watering — Hoeing— Protection  from  Frost  - Mulching — Destroying  In- 
sects—Saving  Seeds — Rotation  of  Crops — Propagation— Suckers — Layers— 
Cuttings- -Slips— Budding- Grafting  - Pruning— Training 51-79 


vlii 


Contents 


VI.  — ' THE  KITCHEN  GARDEN. 

Esculent  Roc/ts— The  Legumes— The  Cabbage  Family— Spinaceous  Plante— 
Asparaginous  Plants— Esculent  Bulbs— Salad  Plants— The  Cucumber  Family 
— The  Pumpkin  Family— Miscellaneous— Sweet  Herbs 78-11G 

VII.  — THE  FRUIT  GARDEN. 

The  Apple— Origin— Varieties— Difficulty  of  Selecting— List  of  Summer  Ap- 
ples— Autumn  Apples— Winter  Apples— Crab  Apples— Culture— Gathering 
and  Preserving— The  Pear— Lists  of  Pears — The  Quince— Varieties— The 
Peach,  with  Lists  of  Varieties— The  Nectarine— The  Apricot— The  Cherry— 
The  Olive — The  Orange— The  Lemon— The  Grape— The  Currant— The 
Gooseberry— The  Raspberry— The  Blackberry— The  Strawberry— The  Fig— 
The  Pomegranate— The  Mulberry 111-142 

VIH.— THE  FLOWER  GARDEN. 

Uses  of  Flowers— A Word  to  the  Ladies— How  to  become  Healthy  and  Strong 
-Implements  for  Ladies’  Use— Laying  Out  a Flower  Garden— Arrangement 
of  Plants— Climbing  Plants— Shrubs  and  Trees— General  Directions— Lists 
of  Flowering  Plants  and  Shrubs — Hardy  Annuals— Hardy  Biennials— Hardy 
Perennials— Tuberous  Rooted  Plants— Bulbous  Rooted  Plants— Flowering 
Shrubs— Climbers  and  Creepers 143-156 

IX.— ORNAMENTAL  TREES  AND  SHRUBS. 

General  Hints— Picturesqueness — Pruning— American  Trees — Transplanting 
—Lists  of  Trees— Large  Trees— Deciduous  and  Evergreen— Small  Trees  and 
Shrubs— Hedge  Plants 15T-161 

APPENDIX. 


The  Bearing  Year — Cause  of  Diminished  Fertility — Removing  Large  Trees— 
New  Varieties  of  the  Potato— Luxuries  of  a Fruit  Garden— Hyacinths  in 
Glasses— Roses  for  Pot-Culture  162-164 


INTRODUCTION 


Ii  is  written  that  God  placed  the  first  man  in  a garden  to  dre*8 
and  to  keep  it ; and  that  woman  was  there  created  as  a help 
meet  for  him.  That  garden  was  the  primitive  paradise  ; and  to 
this  day,  a tastefully  planned,  judiciously  planted,  and  well-kept 
garden  has,  still  lingering  about  it,  many  of  the  charms  we  are 
wont  to  attribute  to  the  original  Eden.  To  the  true  lover  of  rural 
life  it  seems,  in  the  fullness  of  its  summer  beauty,  to  be  indeed 
almost  a Paradise  Regained. 

Gardens  are  frequently  mentioned  in  ancient  writings,  both 
sacred  and  profane,  but  little  is  told  us  either  of  their  productions 
or  their  cultivation. 

At  the  close  of  the  Roman  commonwealth  the  catalogue  of 
cultivated  fruits  had  become  considerable,  and  the  principles  of 
pruning  and  grafting  were  understood  and  practiced.  With  the 
decline  of  the  empire,  horticulture,  in  common  with  other  useful 
arts,  seems  to  have  declined,  and  to  have  revived  only  when 
learning  arose  from  the  slumber  of  the  dark  ages.  Since  that 
time,  it  has  kept  pace  with  the  general  improvement  of  society. 
England,  France,  and  Belgium  have  taken  the  lead  in  modern 
horticultural  progress.  The  United  States  will  not  long  remain 
behind. 

It  would  be  interesting  tc  trace,  at  considerable  length,  tha 

1* 


X 


Introduction 


history  of  gardening,  and  show  how,  both  as  an  art  and  as  a science, 
it  has  been  perfected,  step  by  step,  by  means  of  study,  observation, 
and  experiment ; but  our  limits  will  not  permit  this  course,  and 
we  must  refer  the  inquiring  reader  to  “ Loudon’s  Encyclopedia  of 
Gardening,”  the  most  thorough  and  complete  work  on  the  sub- 
ject in  the  English  language.  It  is,  however,  too  large  and 
expensive  to  be  generally  accessible,  except  in  public  libraries. 

Gardening,  the  earliest  employment  of  man,  is  also  the  most 
attractive.  It  is  Emerson,  we  think,  who  says,  that  after  work- 
ing in  one’s  garden,  nothing  else  seems  worth  doing.  Here  we 
seem  to  come  into  close  communion  with  Nature,  and  to  co- 
operate with  her  in  adorning  and  enriching  the  earth.  To  plant 
one’s  seeds,  to  await  hopefully  their  germination,  to  watch  the 
daily  development  of  the  tender  plant,  to  protect  it  from  the 
encroachments  of  weeds  and  the  attacks  of  insects,  to  loosen  the 
soil  around  it,  to  care  for  it,  watch  over  it,  and  rejoice  in  its 
growth  and  fruitage,  and  finally  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  one’s  labors 
in  the  ripened  harvest — what  mere  sensuous  pleasure  can  be 
greater?  The  market  affords  no  such  pears,  apples,  peaches,  or 
plums  as  grow  on  the  trees  we  have  with  our  own  hands  grafted 
and  pruned.  Our  own  squashes  and  melons  are  sweeter  than  any 
that  our  money  could  buy  ; and  no  potatoes,  or  cabbages,  or 
turnips  are  like  ours  ! 

And  health  flows  to  us  from  the  garden  in  two  broad  streams. 
One  has  its  source  in  the  invigorating  out-door  exercise  it  calls  for 
and  renders  so  delightful,  and  the  other  in  the  wholesome  food 
which  it  furnishes  to  take  the  place  of  much  less  desirable  ali- 
ments which  would  otherwise  be  supplied  by  the  butcher  and  the 
grocer. 

A taste  for  horticulture  is  almost  universal  in  this  country,  and, 
as  land  is  abundant  and  cheap,  and  the  facilities  for  obtaining  it 
great,  very  few  outside  of  our  cities  and  large  towns  are  debarred 
from  gratifying  it,  to  a greater  or  less  extent. 


Introduc tion. 


XI 


But  a knowledge  of  the  science  of  horticulture  is  far  from  being 
co-extensive  with  the  practice  of  the  art,  and  a truly  satisfactory 
degree  of  success  is  only  occasionally  attained.  A rich  soil  and  a 
genial  climate  conspire  to  render  the  rudest  and  most  empirical 
cultivation,  under  favorable  circumstances,  moderately  produc- 
tive. Plodding  industry,  however  blindly  applied,  is  looked  upon 
with  favor  by  all-loving  Nature  ; but  her  richest  gifts  are  reserved 
for  united  science  and  skill.  In  the  cultivation  of  the  earth,  as 
in  every  other  department  of  human  effort,  “ knowledge  is 
power.  ’ ’ 

To  increase  and  extend  a knowledge  of  the  theory  and  practice 
of  gardening  is  the  object  of  the  following  pages,  in  which  we 
have  given  due  attention  to  both  branches  of  the  subject.  The 
former  is  almost  entirely  ignored  in  most  popular  works  on  hor- 
ticulture ; they  being  nearly  restricted  to  details  of  practice. 
These,  though  highly  useful  and  even  essential  to  the  novice,  are 
liable  to  lead  him  frequently  astray,  unless  he  is  guided  in  their 
application  by  a knowledge  of  the  principles  on  which  they  are 
founded. 

The  theoretical  part  of  our  work  is  necessarily  brief,  but  will  be 
found  a useful  auxiliary  to  the  practical  directions  which  follow. 
Carefully  studied,  thoroughly  mastered,  and  constantly  applied, 
it  will  be  of  more  value  to  the  reader  than  a heavy  volume  imper- 
fectly understood  and  confusedly  remembered.  We  would  by  no 
means,  however,  discourage  those  who  have  the  leisure  and  dis- 
position from  pursuing  the  subject  further. 


NOTICE  TO  THE  HEADER 


In  making  use  of  the  practical  directions  given  in  this  work, 
the  reader  should  bear  in  mind  that  it  was  written  in  southern 
New  York,  and  that  where  no  other  place  or  latitude  is  men' 
tioned,  in  designating  the  time  for  planting  seeds,  etc.,  about  40° 
N.,  with  a very  slight  elevation  above  the  sea,  is  to  be  under- 
stood. Allowance  must  be  made  for  situation  north  or  south  of 
this,  and  also  for  elevation  of  site,  soil,  aspect,  exposure,  and  the 
general  character  of  the  season. 

Our  directions  must  also,  of  necessity,  be  subject  to  many 
modifications,  in  other  respects,  by  soil,  situation,  and  climate ; 
but  if  the  reader  will  study  the  general  principles  of  horticulture, 
even  in  our  brief  and  imperfect  exposition  of  them,  in  the  first 
part  of  this  work,  and  exercise  a little  sound  judgment,  he  will 
leadily  overcome  the  obstacles  presented  by  local  and  temporary 
circumstances. 


THE  GARDEN 


I. 

STRUCTURE  AND  GROWTH  OF  PLANTS. 


With  what  increased  satisfaction  are  the  common  processes  of  manuring  or  transplanting 
tarried  on,  to  say  nothing  of  the  more  delicate  operations  of  budding,  grafting,  and  propagating 
by  layers,  etc.,  when  we  are  acquainted  with  the  structure  of  the  plants  we  are  endeavoring  to 
control,  nd  comprehend  the  why  and  the  wherefore  of  every  step  we  pursue. — A.  J.  Downing. 

I.— GERMINATION. 


VERY  perfect  and  matured  seed  contains  the 
germ  of  a new  plant  of  the  species  to  which 
it  owes  its  own  existence.  If  you  separate 
the  two  lobes  of  a bean,  or  other  seed  of  a 
similar  character,  you  will  discover,  pressed 
between  them  at  the  undivided  or  stem  end, 
or  side,  a minute  kernel  or  bud.  This,  though  a 
i ^ rfrt  mere  point,  as  it  were,  contains  the  rudiments  of  two 
1 ‘ 'fe.  or  more  undeveloped  leaves,  united  by  a solid  or  undi- 
’ ^ vided  portion,  called,  in  the  language  of  botany,  the 

radicle , and  constitutes  an  embryo  plant,  holding  within 
itself  all  the  elements  of  vegetable  life.  The  commencement 
of  the  vital  action  which  produces  the  development  of  this 
embryo  is  called  germination . 

The  conditions  essential  to  germination  are  the  presence  of 
moisture , warmth , and  oxygen  gas. 

In  the  absence  of  moisture,  no  effect  toward  germination  is 
produced  by  the  presence  of  warmth  and  oxygen,  or  any  other 
gas.  Moisture  and  oxygon  gas  without  warmth,  are  equally 


14 


The  Garden. 


inefficacious;  jndso  are  moisture  and  warmth  in  the  absence  of 
the  oxygen ; for  seeds  will  not  germinate  in  a vacuum,  nor  in 
distilled  or  recently  boiled  water. 

Moisture  is  necessary  to  soften  and  expand  the  various  parts, 
to  dissolve  soluble  matter,  and  to  establish  a sort  of  circulation. 
The  embryo  seems  also  to  have  the  power  of  decomposing 
water;  and  it  is  probable  that  a portion  of  the  oxygen  required 
is  obtained  in  this  way.  The  rest  must  come  from  the  air;  for 
it  is  found  that  a communication  with  the  atmosphere  is  abso- 
lutely essential  to  perfect  germination.  The  effect  of  heat  ap- 
pears to  be  to  set  the  vital  principle  in  action,  to  expand  the 
air  in  the  numerous  microscopic  cavities  of  the  seed,  and  to 
produce  distension  of  all  the  organic  parts.  The  degree  of 
heat  required  varies  with  different  species.  The  common 
chickweed  will  germinate  at  a temperature  but  little  above  the 
freezing-point,  while  the  seeds  of  many  tropical  plants  require 
a heat  of  from  90°  to  110°  (Fahrenheit)  to  call  them  into 
action.  Wheat,  rye,  and  barley  will  germinate  at  44°.  A 

degree  of  heat  vary- 
ing from  113°  to 
167°  is  capable  of 
destroying  the  vital- 
ity of  the  various 
grains,  beans,  peas, 
etc.  Direct  light, 
so  essential  to  sub- 
sequent vegetation, 
is  unfavorable  to 
germination. 

The  time  required 
for  germination  is 
very  different  in  dif- 
ferent species  of 
plants.  Much  also 
depends  upon  soil, 
YotHQ  radish,  showing  seed-leaves.  climate,  degree  of 


Structure  and  Growth. 


15 


moisture,  etc.  Under  favorable  circumstances,  wheat,  rye, 
oats,  and  millet  will  germinate  in  one  day ; bean,  turnip,  radish, 
and  mustard  in  three  days ; lettuce  in  four  days ; melon,  cucum- 
ber, squash,  and  pumpkin  in  five  days ; barley  in  seven ; cabbage 
in  ten ; parsley  in  fifteen ; almond,  peach,  and  peony  in  one 
year,  and  hawthorn  in  two  years. 

The  time  that  seeds  will  retain  their  vitality  also  differs  in 
different  species,  but  in  all  cases  depends  partly  upon  the  degree 
in  which  they  are  excluded  from  the  action  of  moisture  and 
light.  Kidney-beans,  peas,  and  carrot,  parsnep,  and  rhubarb 
seeds  are  generally  considered  as  losing  their  vitality  at  the  end 
of  one  year,  but  will  sometimes  germinate  after  being  kept 
much  longer. 

These  facts  have  important  bearings  upon  the  subject  of 
horticulture,  and  should  be  constantly  borne  in  mind;  and 
especially  is  it  requisite  that  the  essential  conditions  of  germi- 
nation be  held  in  remembrance.  A failure  to  germinate  is 
doubtless  often  attributed  to  bad  seeds,  when  the  fault  is  en- 
tirely in  the  planting.  It  must  be  perfectly  evident  that  if  your 
seeds  are  insufficiently  covered  in  a light,  dry  soil,  they  will 
lack  the  first  essential  of  germination,  and  will  be  liable  to 
wither  and  perish  for  want  of  moisture.  This  is  why  light 
soils  should  be  pressed  together  and  upon  the  seed  in  planting, 
either  by  means  of  a roller  or  otherwise.  Seeds  buried  too 
deeply,  or  covered  with  a heavy,  dense  soil,  pressed  too  closely 
upon  them,  fail  to  germinate  for  want  of  communication  with 
the  atmosphere.  If  there  be  not  sufficient  warmth  in  the  soil 
at  the  time  of  planting,  and  it  remain  cold  for  a considerable 
time  thereafter,  the  seeds  just  as  surely  perish.  Kemember  the 
conditions  of  germination — moisture,  warmth,  and  oxygen  gas 
(or  air  containing  oxygen). 

Germination  being  established  by  the  action  of  moisture  and 
warmth,  and  maintained  by  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  all 
ports  of  the  embryo  enlarge,  and  new  parts  are  formed  at  the 
expense  of  a saccharine  or  sugary  secretion,  which  tiae  germinat- 
ing seed  possesses  the  power  of  forming.  With  the  assistance 


16 


The  Garden. 


of  this  substance,  the  root  or  radicle,  at  first  a mere  rounded 
cone,  extends  and  pierces  the  earth  in  searcli  of  food,  while 
the  other  extremity  elongates  in  the  opposite  direction,  bringing 
the  cotyledons,  or  seed-leaves  (except  when  these  remain  per- 
manently in  the  ground,  as  in  the  pea,  wheat,  rye,  etc.),  and 
the  rudimentary  leaves  and  stem,  to  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
The  process  of  germination  is  now  completed — the  plant  is 
born. 

II. — THE  ROOT. 

The  root,  the  stem,  and  the  leaves  are  called  the  fundamental 
organs  of  plants.  Of  them  vegetables  essentially  consist ; and 
the  various  organs  known  by  other  names  are  really  but  repeti- 
tions, under  more  or  less  modified  forms,  of  these  essential  parts. 

Germination,  as  we  have  seen,  pushes  the  root  downward 
into  the  earth,  where,  extending  by  the  addition  of  new  matter 
to  its  point , it  soon  enters  upon  the  exercise  of  its  function — 
the  absorption  of  the  crude  food  of  the  plant  from  the  soil. 
This  is  carried  up  through  the  stem  into  the  leaves,  to  be  di- 
gested or  assimilated,  and  returned  to  the  stem  and  root,  and 
used  in  the  formation  of  new  branches,  leaves,  and  rootlets,  as 
well  as  for  increasing  the  length  and  size  of  those  already 
formed.  The  more  a plant  grows,  therefore,  the  more  are  the 
means  of  growth  multiplied. 

As  the  roots  are  extended  by  the  addition  of  new  matter  to 
the  extreme  points,  these  points  are  exceedingly  delicate  and 
easily  injured.  It  is  mainly  through  them , too,  that  absorption 
takes  place.  It  is  readily  seen,  therefore,  why  the  careless  or 
unskillful  removal  of  plants  from  the  earth,  for  the  purpose  of 
transplanting,  by  destroying  the  delicate  points  of  the  roots,  or 
spongelets , as  they  are  called,  always  checks  so  greatly  their 
growth,  and  often  destroys  their  life. 

Their  peculiar  mode  of  growth  admirably  adapt  roots  to 
pierce  the  earth  and  insinuate  themselves  into  the  minutest 
crevices.  Thus  they  pass  on  from  place  to  place  in  search  of 
fresh  pasturage,  shifting  their  mouths,  although  their  bodied 
remain  stationary. 


Structure  and  Growth. 


17 


Roots  seem  to  possess  a principle  akin  to  instinct,  which 
guides  them  in  their  search  for  food ; for  they  invariably  extend 
themselves  most  rapidly  and  widely  in  the  direction  of  the 
richest  soil.  If  a strawberry  plant  be  set  in  a sandy  soil,  defi- 
cient in  nutritive  matters,  and  rich  earth  placed  on  one  side  of 
it,  the  roots  will  immediately  seek  the  fertile  spot,  although  at 
first  nowhere  in  contact  with  it.  A decaying  bone  or  a piece 
of  rotten  wood  will  in  the  same  way  be  sought  out  by  the 
roots  of  a plant  requiring  the  nutritive  elements  it  may  contain ; 
and  such  objects  are  often  found  completely  covered  by  a net- 
work of  minute  rootlets. 

The  roots  of  plants  have,  to  a certain  extent,  the  power  of 
selecting  their  food.  In  general,  they  absorb  only  those  sub- 
stances which  are  needed  to  develop  and  perfect  their  various 
parts.  Thus,  if  a pea  and  a grain  of  wheat  be  planted  side  by 
side,  and  made  to  grow  under  the  same  circumstances,  the 
wheat  plant  will  absorb  silex  (in  solution)  from  the  earth,  while 
fche  pea  will  absorb  none.  This  power  of  selection,  however, 
does  not  enable  the  roots  of  plants  to  reject,  under  all  circum- 
stances, any  deleterious  agents  which  may  be  brought  in  con- 
tad  with  them;  and  it  is  a curious  circumstance  that  sub- 
stances which  are  fatal  to  man  are  equally  so  to  plants,  and  in 
nearly  the  same  way. 

In  addition  to  their  principal  office,  as  feeding  organs,  the 
roots  of  plants  are  believed  to  be,  to  some  extent,  organs  of 
excretion,  throwing  off  any  superfluous  or  deleterious  matter 
which  may  have  been  imbibed  either  by  themselves  or  by  the 
leaves.  They  also  possess  the  power  of  accumulating  a store 
of  sap,  upon  which  the  plant  may  draw  in  time  of  need. 
Striking  examples  of  the  last-named  property  are  furnished  by 
the  turnip,  the  beet,  the  carrot,  and  other  plants  of  the  same 
class. 

In  general,  roots  do  not  produce  buds,  and  are  therefore 
incapable  of  multiplying  the  plant  to  which  they  belong ; but 
to  this  rule  there  are  many  exceptions,  some  species  having 
the  power,  under  certain  circumstances,  of  forming  what  are 


18 


The  Garden. 


called  adventitious  buds.  In  such  cases  they  may  he  employed 
for  the  purposes  of  propagation. 

F^ots  are  not  inactive  during  the  winter,  as  many  suppose, 
except  while  actually  frozen,  but  are  perpetually  extracting  food 
from  the  earth,  and  storing  it  up  for  the  next  season’s  use.  A 
long,  mild  winter  is  there- 
fore favorable  to  the  vege- 
tation of  the  succeeding 
spring. 

Roots  are  of  various 
kinds.  In  reference  to 
their  duration,  they  are 
classed  as  annual , bien- 
nial, and  perennial.  An 
fibrous  boot.  annual  root  lives  but  a spindle  boot 

single  year.  It  in  always  fibrous , or  composed  of  numerous 
branches  or  rootlets.  Biennial  roots  are  those  of  plants  which 
do  not  blossom  till  the  second  year,  at  the  end  of  which  they 
perish.  They  are  thickened  or  fleshy,  and  of  various  shapes — 
conical , as  in  the  carrot;  spindle-shaped,  as  in  the  radish;  tur- 


nip-shaped, clustered,  tuberous,  ©tc.  Perennial  roots  are  those 
which,  like  the  roots  of  trees  woody  plants,  and  some 
others,  survive  from  year  to  year  indefinitely. 

A tuber , of  which  the  potato  is  the  best  example,  is  not 
atrictly  a root,  but  a modification  of  the  stem,  running  beneath 


Structure  and  Growth.  19 

the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  having  buds  (eyes)  embedded  in  a 
cellular  substance,  consisting  principally  of  starch. 

Bulbs,  whether  formed  in  the  earth,  as  is  generally  the  case, 
or  on  the  summit  of  the  stem,  as  in  the  top  or  tree  onion,  are 
simply  leaf-buds  inclosed  in  scales  or  concentric  layers. 

III.— THE  STEM. 

As  soon  as  the  root  enters  upon  the  performance  of  its  proper 
function,  the  stem  begins  to  extend  itself  upward,  and  the  pri- 
mary leaf-bud,  attracting  to  itself  the  food  procured  for  it,  and 
a part  of  the  nutritive  matter  stored  up  in  the  seed-leaves,  ex- 
‘pfcnds,  and  the  two  or  more  parts  or  leaves  of  which  it  is 
composed  separate,  and  begin  to  manifest  their  distinctive 
features. 

The  stem  is  at  first  composed  entirely  of  cellular  tissue, 
possessing  neither  strength  nor  tenacity ; but  at  the  moment 
that  the  first  rudiment  of  a leaf  appears  upon  its  growing  point, 
the  formation  of  woody  matter  commences.  It  consists  of  tough 
fibers  of  extreme  fineness,  which  take  their  rise  in  the  leaves, 
and  thence  pass  downward  through  the  cellular  tissue  and  are 
incorporated  with  the  latter,  giving  it  the  necessary  strength 
and  flexibility.  In  trees  and  shrubs  these  fibers  combine 
intimately  with  each  other,  and  form  what  is  properly  called 
wood ; but  in  herbaceous  and  annual  plants  they  constitute  a 
lax  fibrous  matter.  The  woody  matter  thus  plunged,  as  it 
were,  into  the  cellular  tissue,  forms  within  the  circumference 
of  the  stem  a tubular  partition,  separating  it  into  two  parts — 
the  bark  and  the  pith.  This  gives  us,  in  perennial  stems,  the 
three  general  divisions  of  pith,  wood,  and  bark. 

The  pith  consists  entirely  of  cellular  tissue,  gorged  at  first 
with  the  nourishing  juices  of  the  plant,  but  afterward  becom 
ing  empty  and  dry. 

The  wood  consists  of  the  proper  woody  fiber,  interwoven 
with  and  bound  together  by  thin  plates  or  layers  of  cellular 
tissue,  passing  horizontally  across  it,  and  forming  what  are 
called  the  silver  grain  in  maple,  oak,  etc.  They  represent  the 


20  The  Garden. 

horizontal  system  of  the  wood — in  botanical  language,  the 
medullary  rays. 

The  baric  consists  originally  of  cellular  tissue  alone,  hut  after- 
ward the  inner  portion  next  the  wood  has  the  woody  tissue 
formed  in  it,  and  becomes  the  liber,  or  fibrous  inner  bark. 

Whenever  a stem  is  wounded,  it  is  the  cellular  or  horizontal 
system  which  forms  granulations  that  eventually  coalesce  into 
masses,  within  which  the  woody  tissue  is  subsequently  devel- 
oped, and  the  communication  between  the  two  sides  of  an  inci- 
sion effected.  In  cuttings,  the  callus  which  forms  at  the  end 
placed  in  the  ground  is  the  cellular  or  horizontal  system  pre- 
paring for  the  woody  fibers,  which  are  to  pass  downward  in 
the  form  of  roots. 

The  description  we  have  given  of  the  structure  of  a stem 
applies  to  all  plants  whose  woody  matter  is  augmented  annually 
oy  external  additions  below  the  liber,  and  which  are  called  exo- 
gens,  or  outside  growers.  All  the  trees  and  shrubs  of  the 
United  States,  except  the  few  palms  of  our  Southern  confines, 
belong  to  this  class.  In  the  palms,  which  belong  to  the  class 
of  endogens,  or  inside 
growers,  the  woody 
matter  is  augmented 
annually  by  internal 
additions  to  their  cen- 
ter, thus  constantly 
pushing  the  woody  endogen. 

growth  of  former  years  to  their  circumference.  The  stem  of 
the  asparagus  exhibits  a similar  structure  in  an  herb.  In  endo- 
gens, the  cellular  and  fibrous  systems  are  all  mixed  together, 
their  mode  of  growth  not  requiring  the  same  arrangement  of 
parts  as  exists  in  the  exogens . 

Stems,  during  their  growth,  form  on  their  surfaces  minute 
vital  points,  each  of  which  becomes,  or  may  become,  a leaf- 
bud,  capable  of  forming  another  stem  or  branch  like  that  on 
which  it  is  found.  These  buds  appear  immediately  above  the 
point  of  union  between  the  leaf  and  the  stem,  and  are  not, 


Structure  and  Growth,  21 

under  ordinary  circumstances,  found  anywhere  else.  They 
occasionally,  however,  appear  on  other  parts,  when  they  are 
called  (as  when  found  on  the  roots)  adventitious  buds.  It 
is  by  means  of  the  leaf-buds  that  a cutting  is  capable  of  pro- 
ducing a new  individual  like  that  from  which  it  was  taken. 
Leaf-buds  are  also  capable,  under  fitting  cir- 
cumstances, of  growing  when  separated  from 
the  parent  branch.  In  some  cases  they  are 
planted  in  the  earth,  when  they  put  forth  roots, 
and  thereby  sustain  an  independent  existence. 

In  others  they  are  inserted  below  the  bark 
of  a kindred  species,  and,  forming  new  wood, 
adhere  to  that  on  which  they  are  placed. 

The  principal  functions  of  the  stem  (aside 
from  its  continual  multiplication  of  itself  by 
means  of  buds)  are  the  support  of  the  leaves  and  the  convey- 
ance and  distribution  of  the  sap.  In  trees,  the  sap  or  crude 
food  procured  by  the  roots  rises  principally  through  the  newer 
wood ; but  the  assimilated  sap  returns  from  the  leaves  in  the 
newest  bark,  or  liber , whence  it  is  horizontally  diffused,  through 
the  medullary  rays , into  the  sap-wood  and  other  living  parts. 
It  is  in  the  bark,  therefore,  and  not  in  the  wood,  that  we  must 
look  for  the  proper  juices  of  a plant. 

IV.— LEAVES. 

A leaf,  as  defined  by  Dr.  Lindley,  is  an  appendage  of  the 
stem  of  a plant  having  one  or  more  leaf-buds  in  its  axil , or 
point  of  union  with  the  stem.  In  some  cases  no  leaf-buds  are 
visible,  but  they  are  present,  nevertheless,  although  latent,  and 
may  be  developed  by  favorable  conditions. 

A complete  leaf  consists  of  the  lamina , or  blade,  and  the 
petiole,  or  leaf-stalk.  In  some  leaves  the  petiole  is  wanting, 
the  lamina  resting  immediately  upon  the  stem,  and  in  others 
there  is  no  proper  blade,  the  whole  organ  being  cylindrical  or 
stalk-like. 

Considered  in  reference  to  their  structure,  it  may  be  said 


22 


The  Garden. 


leaves  are  extensions  of  the  green  layer  of  the  bark  (’which, 
where  no  proper  leaves  exist,  fulfills  their  function)  expanded 
into  thin  lamina  and  strengthened  by  woody  fibers  connected 
with  the  liber , or  inner  bark,  and  with  the  wood.  These  woody 
fibers  form  their  frame- work,  and  afford,  at  the  same  time,  by 
their  microscopic  ramifications,  a complete  and  beautiful  system 
of  veins.  The  leaf,  therefore,  like  the  stem,  consists  of  two 
distinct  parts,  the  cellular  and  the  woody.  The  cellular  por- 
tion is  not  the  structureless,  pulpy  mass  which  it  appears  to  be 
to  the  naked  eye,  hut  presents  a regular  and  beautiful  arrange- 
ment of  cells.  The  woody  part  forming  the  veins,  and  having, 
as  we  have  seen,  a double  origin,  is  arranged  in  two  layers ; the 
upper,  arising  from  the  wood,  and  conveying  the  ascending 
sap  to  every  part  of  the  leaf,  and  the  lower,  connected  with 
the  liber , and  establishing  a communication  with  the  bark,  by 
means  of  which  the  assimilated  juices  pass  downward.  En- 
casing the  whole  of  this  wonderfully  beautiful  apparatus  is  the 
epidermis , or  skin,  pierced  by  numerous  invisible  pores  or  holes, 
called  stomates , through  which  the  plant  breathes  and  per- 
spires. 

It  would  be  interesting,  in  connection  with  the  foregoing 
brief  outline  of  the  structure  of  the  leaf,  to  give  some  account 
of  the  different  forms  of  leaves,  their  various  modifications, 
and  their  systematic  and  beautiful  arrangement  on  the  stem ; 
but  as  the  practical  ends  we  have  in  view  do  not  require  us  to 
pursue  the  subject  further  in  this  direction,  we  must  forego  it. 

Leaves  have  been  called  the  lungs  of  plants.  They  are 
something  more  than  this,  being  not  only  organs  of  respiration, 
but  of  perspiration  and  digestion  also.  They  are,  at  the  same 
time,  stomach,  lungs,  and  skin.  They  receive  the  crude  sap 
from  the  roots  through  the  stem,  and,  by  means  of  exposure  to 
air  and  light,  the  decomposition  of  water  and  carbonic  acid, 
and  the  throwing  off  of  superfluous  moisture,  condense  it  and 
change  it  into  organizable  matter — the  true  food  of  plants. 
This  elaborated  sap  is  sent  immediately  downward,  to  serve  for 
the  nourishment  of  every  part. 


Structure  and  Growth. 


23 


The  nutrition  of  a plant  depending  upon  its  leaves,  the  former 
may  he  destroyed  by  simply  destroying  its  foliage.  In  general, 
it  does  not  immediately  die,  because  it  has  the  power  of  putting 
forth  new  leaves,  which  come  into  action  and  supply  imper  * 
fectly  the  places  of  those  removed ; but  if  it  be  deprived  of 
these  essential  organs  during  the  entire  season,  its  power  of 
Droducing  them  ceases,  and  all  functions  are  suspended. 

Y.— flowers  and  fruit. 

A flower  is  that  part  of  a plant  which  is  formed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  reproducing  its  species  by  means  of  seeds.  Fruit  is 
the  seed,  or  the  seed  and  its  pericarp,  or  covering.  The  peri- 
carp includes  whatever  goes  to  make  up  the  seed-vessel, 
whether  it  be  a mere  thin  husk,  a hard,  bone-like  shell,  or  a 
soft,  fleshy  pulp. 

Anatomically  considered,  the  parts  of  a flower  are  merely 
modified  leaves,  the  whole  forming  a very  short  branch. 
What  causes  a plant  to  convert  some  of  its  leaf-buds  into 
flowers,  by  fashioning  the  leaves  into  calyx , corolla,  stamens , 
and  pistils,  while  other  buds  become  ordinary  branches,  it  is 
not  essential  to  our  purpose  to  explain.  It  is  pretty  clear, 
however,  that  their  production  depends  upon  the  presence  in 
the  plant  of  a sufficient  quantity  of  secreted  matter , fit  for 
their  maintenance  when  produced.  If  it  happen,  then,  that, 
from  any  cause,  there  be  not,  at  the  usual  time  of  flowering, 
any  store  of  nutritive  juices  beyond  what  is  required  for  the 
.production  of  leaves  and  the  growth  of  the  stem,  no  flower- 
buds  are  put  forth.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  failure  of  fruit- 
trees  to  bear  at  all  the  season  next  succeeding  one  in  which  an 
excessive  crop  has  been  produced.*  Sometimes  flowers  are 
produced,  but,  the  supply  of  nutriment  proving  insufficient, 
they  drop  off  without  producing  fruit. 

Lindley  syllogistically  says:  “A  flower  being  a kind  of 
branch,  as  has  been  already  shown,  and  the  fruit  being  an  ad- 


* See  Appendix,  A 


24 


The  Gakden. 


vanced  stage  of  the  flower,  it  follows  that  a fruit  is  also  a kind 
of  branch.”  It  has  certainly  the  same  organic  connection  with 
the  plant  as  other  branches,  and,  like  them,  requires  to  be  sup* 
plied  with  focd,  without  which  it  must  perish. 

So  long  as  a fruit  retains  its  original  green,  foliaceous  char- 
acter, it  is  capable  of  performing,  partially  at  least,  the  func- 
tions of  a leaf,  decomposing  carbonic  acid,  etc.  A portion  of 
the  food  required  for  its  maturation  may  therefore  be  derived, 
by  its  own  action,  from  the  air ; but  the  greater  part  must  be 
prepared  by  the  leaves  from  material  furnished  by  the  roots. 
This  shows  the  necessity  of  the  healthy  and  regular  action  of 
the  leaves  and  roots  in  perfecting  fruit,  and  the  importance  of 
fruit  being  placed  near  the  leaves,  so  that  it  can  readily  attract 
the  required  nutriment  from  them.  If  you  remove  all  the 
leaves  from  a branch  containing  fruit,  you  stop  the  growth  of 
the  latter  almost  as  effectually  as  by  separating  it  from  the 
stem. 

The  juices  furnished  by  the  leaves  undergo  further  altera- 
tions by  the  vital  forces  of  the  fruit  itself,  and  this  alteration 
varies  according  to  the  species.  The  fruit  of  the  peach  is 
sweet,  but  there  is  no  perceptible  sweetness  in  its  leaves ; and 
the  fruit  of  the  fig  is  sweet  and  nutritious,  while  the  leaves  of 
that  plant  are  acrid  and  deleterious. 

Among  the  principal  immediate  causes  of  the  changes  which 
occur  in  the  secretions  of  fruits  are  heat  and  light.  Fruits 
produced  in  warm  seasons  are  always  much  sweeter  than  those 
which  are  matured  in  cold  ones ; and  the  products  of  hot  cli- 
mates abound  in  sugar,  while  in  those  of  cold  climates  acidity 
prevails. 

The  ripening  of  fruit  is  hastened  by  dryness,  and  retarded 
by  an  excess  of  moisture. 

Seeds  are  affected  by  all  the  circumstances  which  affect  the 
fruit,  which  is  created  primarily  for  their  nutrition  and  preser- 
vation. The  fruit  attracts  organizable  matter  from  the  leaves, 
and  the  seeds  attract  it  from  the  fruit.  The  better  the  fruit, 
therefore,  tho  more  perfect  are  the  seeds. 


ACH!  ULTURA- 
EXPERIMENT  STATION 


JUN  £3  1 888 

s”nc""‘  ffiiNOis.25 

All  seeds  will  not  equally  produce  vigorous  plants ; but  the 
healthiness  of  the  seedling  will  correspond  with  that  of  the 
seed  from  which  it  sprung.  Where  vigor  is  required,  the 
plumpest  and  heaviest  seeds  should  be  selected. 

A seed  always  produces  a plant  of  the  same  species  as  that 
from  which  it  was  derived,  but  is  not  certain  to  reproduce  any 
peculiarity  that  may  have  existed  in  its  parent.  For  instance, 
the  seed  of  a Green  Gage  plum  will  grow  into  a new  individual 
of  the  plum  species,  but  it  is  not  certain,  or  even  likely,  to  pro- 
duce the  variety  known  as  the  Green  Gage.  The  variety  must 
be  propagated  in  some  other  way. 

VI.—1 THE  FOOD  OF  PLANTS. 

The  gardener  should  know  precisely  what  substances  plants 
require  for  their  growth  and  the  maturation  of  their  fruit — 
that  is,  their  natural  food.  This  is  ascertained  by  analysis. 
When  we  have  learned  of  what  plants  are  composed,  we  know 
what  their  food  must  necessarily  contain. 

The  constituents  of  plants,  as  shown  by  analysis,  are  of  two 
kinds,  organic  and  inorganic.  Only  the  organic  constituents, 
however,  are  universally  indispensable.  These  are  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  carbon,  which  make  up  at  least  from 
eighty-eight  to  ninety -nine  per  cent,  of  every  vegetable  sub- 
stance. The  inorganic  constituents,  which  are  essential  to  the 
perfection  of  any  but  the  lowest  grade  of  plants,  consist  mainly 
of  potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  alumina,  silex,  sulphur,  and 
phosphorus. 

Now,  where  and  how  are  the  different  kinds  of  food  which 
plants  require  obtained  ? Mainly,  no  doubt,  from  the  soil,  and 
by  means  of  the  roots,  which,  we  have  seen,  are  the  proper 
feeding  organs.  The  air  may,  however  (and  evidently  does,  in 
some  cases,  as  in  the  epiphytes,  or  air-plants),  either  directly  or 
indirectly,  supply  all  the  organic  elements. 

But  whether  derived  from  the  earth  cr  from  the  air,  the 
plant's  nourishment  is  wholly  received  either  in  the  gaseous  or 
the  liquid  form ; for  the  leaves  can  imbibe  air  or  vapor  only 

2 


26 


The  Garden. 


while  the  tissue  of  the  rootlets  is  especially  adapted  to  absorb 
liquids,  and  is-  incapable  of  talcing  in  solid  matter , however 
minutely  divided . Let  these  facts  be  borne  in  mind  while  pre- 
paring your  soils  and  manures. 

The  oxygen  and  hydrogen  required  by  plants  is  probably  de- 
rived principally  from  water. 

The  nitrogen  is  obtained  mostly  by  the  decomposition  of 
ammonia  (hartshorn),  a compound  of  hydrogen  and  nitrogen, 
always  produced  when  any  animal  and  almost  any  vegetable 
substance  decays.  It  is  dissolved  in  water,  absorbed  by  porous 
substances  in  the  soil,  and  thus  furnished  to  the  roots  of  plants. 

The  source  of  the  carbon,  which  forms  much  the  larger  por- 
tion of  the  bulk  of  plants,  is  still  to  be  sought.  Carbon  itself 
is  a solid,  absolutely  insoluble  in  water,  and  therefore  not  avail- 
able. The  chief,  if  not  the  only  fluid  composed  of  carbon, 
naturally  presented  to  the  plant,  is  that  of  carbonic  acid  gas, 
which  consists  of  carbon  united  with  oxygen.  This  gas  makes 
up,  on  the  average,  one  two-thousandth  of  the  atmosphere, 
from  which  it  may  be  directly  absorbed  by  the  leaves;  but, 
being  freely  soluble  in  water,  qp  to  a certain  point,  it  must  be 
carried  down  by  the  rain  and  imbibed  by  the  roots.  The  car- 
bonic acid  of  the  atmosphere  is,  therefore,  the  great  source  of 
carbon  for  vegetation.  Carbonic  acid  is  also  produced  in  small 
quantities  by  the  action  of  manures  in  the  soil. 

The  carbonic  acid  absorbed  is  decomposed  in  the  leaves  by 
the  action  of  solar  light;  the  carbon  being  retained  and  the 
oxygen  thrown  off — beautifully  reversing  the  process  of  animal 
respiration,  and  thus  preserving  the  proper  balance  in  the 
atmosphere. 

The  mineral  matters  which  form  the  inorganic  constituents 
of  plants  are  all  either  soluble  in  water,  or  in  the  acids  or  alka- 
lies mixed  with  it,  and  are  therefore  readily  absorbed  by  the 
roots. 

The  following  analysis  of  wheat  will  give  the  reader  an  idea 
of  the  principal  mineral  constituents  of  plants  generally,  as  to 
the  number  of  their  elements;  their  proportion  will  vary 


Structure  and  Growth. 


27 


greatly  in  different  species.  The  wheat  (the  entire  plant,  in- 
cluding the  seed)  in  1,000  lbs.  gave  Ilf  lbs.  of  ashes,  composed 
as  follows : 


Potash 2.25 

Soda 2.40 

Lime 96 

Magnesia 90 

Alumina 26 


Silica. 

Sulphuric  acid. . 
Phosphoric  acid 

Chlorine 

Iron,  a trace. 


.4.00 
. 50 

sm 


An  analysis  of  perfected  plants  of  the  same  species,  although 
growing  in  very  different  soils,  will  give  the  same  proportion ; 
while  different  species,  although  growing  in  the  same  soil,  will 
give  very  different  proportions,  showing  that  plants  require 
definite  quantities  of  the  inorganic  elements  in  order  to  perfect 
growth,  and  that  in  soil  that  does  not  yield  these  elements  an 
imperfect  growth  only  can  be  obtained. 

These  facts  lie  at  the  foundation  of  rotation  of  crops  and 
manuring.  When  any  given  plant  has  exhausted  the  soil  of 
the  soluble  elements  requisite  for  its  growth,  another  plant 
requiring  different  elements,  or  the  same  in  different  propor- 
tions, may  grow  luxuriantly  and  in  perfection  in  the  same  soil. 
Generally  the  grasses , such  as  wheat,  rye,  oats,  etc.,  requfre 
large  quantities  of  silica ; peas,  clover,  and  tobacco,  much  lime ; 
turnips,  beets,  and  sweet  potatoes,  potash  and  soda.  The  stalk 
and  fruit  often  require  different  elements  in  different  proportions. 
Both  of  course  must  be  supplied.  These  elements  might  exist 
in  the  soil,  but  not  in  a soluble  condition,  and  of  course  yield 
no  benefit  to  the  plant.* 


YII. — CONDITIONS  ESSENTIAL  TO  GROWTH. 

All  the  conditions  essential  to  growth  have  already  been 
either  specially  explained  or  incidentally  mentioned ; hut  it  may 
he  useful  briefly  to  recapitulate : 

1.  Warmth. — Without  this,  as  we  have  seen,  the  latent 
powers  of  vegetable  life  can  not  be  called  into  action.  It  ia 


* See  Appendix,  B and  also  “ The  Farm,”  foi  more  on  this  point 


28 


The  Garden. 


not  less  essential  to  their  continued  activity.  Although  many 
plants  will  live  at  a temperature  much  below  the  freezing-point, 
yet  no  plant  is  able  to  grow  unless  the  temperature  is  above 
32°,  for  physical  reasons  which  require  no  explanation.  A 
temperature  permanently  much  higher  than  a plant  requires  for 
'its  heaithy  growth  over-excites,  enfeebles,  and  finally  destroys  it. 

2.  Moisture. — Moisture  is  obviously  essential,  both  because 
water  itself  in  its  pure  state  furnishes  two  of  the  essential  ele- 
ments which  enter  into  the  composition  of  all  plants,  and 
because  it  constitutes  the  medium  through  which  the  other 
substances  required  are  conveyed  into  the  roots.  Excessive 
moisture,  however,  is  destructive  to  most  plants.  It  is  a great 
point  in  horticulture  to  determine  the  degree  of  moisture  most 
congenial  to  a given  species,  under  given  circumstances.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  plant  should  be  most  abundantly  supplied  with 
moisture  when  it  begins  to  grow , and  the  quantity  gradually 
diminished  as  it  approaches  maturity . However,  as  one  effect 
of  excessive  moisture  is  to  keep  the  newly-formed  parts  of  a 
plant  tender  and  succulent,  those  the  leaves  or  roots  of  which 
(as  in  the  case  of  lettuce,  radishes,  etc.)  are  to  be  eaten  un- 
cooked, should  be  constantly  supplied  with  moisture.  Excess 
of  moisture  will  also  cause  strawberries  and  other  fruits  to 
swell  beyond  their  natural  size ; but  their  flavor  is  diminished 
in  the  same  proportion. 

3.  Food. — A plant  can  no  more  live  without  food  than  a 
human  being  can.  Deficiency  of  food  dwarfs  it,  and  prevents 
perfect  development;  and  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the 
presence  in  the  soil  of  the  nutritive  elements  is  of  no  avail  so 
long  as  they  remain  in  an  insoluble  condition.  It  is  only  in  a 
gaseous  or  liquid  form  (allow  us  to  repeat)  that  plants  are  ca- 
pable of  receiving  their  food. 

4.  Airs — Plants  breathe  (in  their  way),  and  must  therefore 
have  air.  Much  of  their  nourishment  is  derived  either  imme- 
diately or  remotely  from  it. 

5.  Light. — It  is  by  the  aid  of  solar  light  alone  that  the  leaves 
can  properly  perform  their  grand  function — the  assimilation  of 


Structure  a.ud  Growth. 


29 


the  crude  sap  furnished  them  by  the  roots.  It  is  only  under 
the  influence  of  light  that  they  decompose  the  carbonic  acid 
gas  from  which  the  large  proportion  of  carbon  they  require  is 
obtained.  It  is  to  light  also  that  they  owe  their  green  color. 
In  the  dark  this  coloring  matter  is  not  formed,  potatoes  and 
other  vegetables  kept  in  cellars  throwing  out  white  stems  and 
leaves.  Some  plants,  however,  require  less  light  th';n  miners, 
and  flourish  in  shady  places.  When  we  wish  to  blanch  a plant, 
as  in  the  case  of  celery,  we  exclude  the  light.* 


* For  a further  elucidation  of  the  various  subjects  discussed  in  the  foregoing 
pages,  see  Lindley’s  “Theory  of  Horticulture,”  Gray’s  “Botanical  Text- 
Book,”  Boussingault’s  “Economic  Rurale ,”  and  Darby’s  “Botany  of  the 
Southern  States,”  to  all  of  which,  and  especially  to  the  first-named,  wo  have 
been  indebted  in  the  preparation  of  this  chapter 


30 


The  Garden. 


II. 

\ s SOILS  AND  MANURES. 

It®  soil  should  be  good  to  the  depth  of  two  feet,  and  any  necessary  deepening  beyoad  thin, 
by  manures  or  otherwise,  should  not  be  neglected. — Neill. 

I.— CLASSIFICATION  OF  SOILS. 


E are  accustomed  to  recognize  three  prim- 
itive earths — silex  (which  includes  sand 
and  gravel),  clay,  and  lime.  These,  to- 
gether with  decayed  vegetable  and  animal 
matter,  enter  more  or  less  into  the  compo- 
sition of  all  soils.  On  the  relative  propor- 
tion of  these  ingredients  and  their  texture,  or  degree 
of  fineness  or  coarseness,  depends  mainly  the  character 
^ of  each  variety. 

^5  /v  Soils  may  first  be  considered  in  two  grand  divisions 
— heavy  and  light,  the  former  being  characterized  by 
a predominance  of  clay,  and  the  latter  by  an  excess  of  sand  or 
gravel. 

1.  Heavy  Soils. — The  heavy  or  clayey  soils  are  also  known 
as  wet  and  cold,  from  their  strong  affinity  for  water.  In  dry 
weather,  however,  they  are  liable  to  hake,  or  become  hard  am 
brick-like.  They  are  difficult  to  work,  and,  till  much  modifier 
by  art  and  labor,  generally  unproductive. 

2.  Light  Soils. — The  light  or  sandy  and  gravelly  soils  are 
denominated  dry  and  warm,  because  they  permit  the  water  to 
pass  readily  through  them.  They  are  subject  to  drouth,  and 
have  the  further  disadvantage  of  allowing  a large  proportion 
of  the  manure  applied  to  them  to  pass  through  into  the  sub- 
soil. They  are  easy  to  work,  and  crops  can  be  brought  to  per- 
fection much  earlier  on  them  than  on  clayey  soils. 


Soils  and  Manures. 


31 


These  grand  classes  of  soils,  running  into  each  other  by 
imperceptible  gradations,  and  being  variously  modified,  may  be 
considered  as  embracing  every  variety  found  on  the  face  of  the 
globe. 

3.  Loamy  Soils . — A mixture  of  from  fifteen  to  sixty  per 
cent,  of  sand  with  clay  forms  a loamy  soil.  If  the  sand  do  not 
exceed  thirty  per  cent.,  it  is  called  a clay  loam;  more  than 
thirty  per  cent,  constitutes  it  a sandy  loam. 

4.  Calcareous  Soils. — Calcareous  soils  are  thos.  m which 
lime,  exceeding  twenty  per  cent.,  becomes  the  distinguishing 
constituent.  Calcareous  soils  may  be  either  calcareous  clays, 
calcareous  sands,  or  calcareous  loams,  according  to  the  propor- 
tions of  sand  or  clay  which  may  be  present  in  them. 

5.  Marly  Soils. — Soils  containing  lime,  but  in  which  the 
proportion  does  not  exceed  twenty  per  cent.,  are  sometimes 
called  marly. 

6.  Vegetable  Molds. — When  decayed  vegetable  matter  exists 
in  so  great  proportion  as  to  give  the  predominant  character  to 
a soil,  it  receives  the  name  of  vegetable  mold.  Vegetable 
molds  are  of  various  kinds,  and  may  be  either  clayey,  sandy,  or 
loamy,  according  to  the  predominant  character  of  the  earthy 
admixtures. 

7.  Allmial  Soils. — Alluvial  soils  are  such  as  have  been 
formed  by  the  washings  of  streams*  They  are  generally  loamy, 
and  very  fertile. 

Besides  their  principal  component  parts,  every  soil  must 
contain,  in  greater  or  less  quantities,  all  the  elements  which 
enter  into  the  composition  of  vegetables.  They  may  have  cer- 
tain substances  which  are  not  necessary  to  vegetable  life,  and 
such  as  are  necessary  may  be  in  excess ; yet  to  sustain  a healthy, 
prolific  vegetation,  they  must  hold,  and  in  a form  fitted  to  its 
support,  silex , alumina , carbonate  of  lime , sulphate  of  lime , 
potash , soda,  magnesia , sulphur , phosphorus , oxyd  of  iron , 
manganese,  chlorine,  and  probably  iodine.  These  are  called 
the  inorganic  or  earthy  parts  of  soils.  In  addition  to  these, 
fertile  soils  must  contain  carbon,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  hydro - 


32 


The  Garden, 


gen,  which  are  called  organic  parts  of  soils,  from  their  great 
preponderance  in  vegetables  and  animals. 

For  gardening  purposes,  a loamy  soil,  composed  of  nearly 
equal  proportions  of  clay,  sand,  and  lime,  and  enriched  by  de- 
posits of  decayed  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  is  perhaps  the 
best;  but  a sandy  loam  similarly  enriched  is  good.  Very 
heavy  and  very  light  soils  are  objectionable;  but  the  latter  less 
so,  since  it  may  be  much  more  easily  improved. 

Subsoih. — The  productiveness  of  a soil  depends  to  a con- 
siderable extent  upon  the  subsoil  or  bed  on  which  it  rests, 
which  may  be  either  clayey,  sandy,  gravelly,  or  calcareous.  A 
clayey  subsoil  is  unfavorable,  as  it  renders  the  soil  wet  and  cold. 
Loose  and  leachy  subsoils,  consisting  mainly  of  gravel  or  sand, 
are  also  undesirable,  on  account  of  the  facility  with  which 
moisture  and  the  soluble  portions  of  manures  escape  into  them. 
Calcareous  subsoils  are  considered  best. 

II.— IMPROVEMENT  OF  SOILS. 

As  the  original  soil  of  one’s  garden  can  not  always  be  a 
matter  of  choice,  the  garden  being  properly  situated  near  the 
house,  and  the  house  depending  for  its  location  upon  other  cir- 
cumstances besides  the  soil,  it  becomes  important  to  know  how 
to  imprc  fe  it  if  it  happen  to  be  of  an  undesirable  character. 

In  order  to  set  yourself  about  the  work  of  improvement  with 
a reasonable  prospect  of  success,  you  should  have  a clear  com- 
prehension of  the  end  to  be  attained.  What,  then,  are  the 
qualities  desirable  in  a garden  soil  ? 

A garden  soil  should  be  loamy,  rich  in  all  the  elements  essen- 
tial to  the  growth  of  plants,  sufficiently  light  and  friable  to  be 
easily  cultivated,  and  to  allow  the  roots  to  penetrate  it,  in  every 
direction,  and  at  the  same  time  sufficiently  adhesive  to  retain 
moisture  and  the  soluble  portions  of  manures  till  they  may  bo 
required  by  the  growing  plant. 

Improvement  of  Clayey  Soils. — If  it  be  a clayey  soil  with 
which  you  have  to  do,  you  will  probably,  in  the  first  place, 
find  it  too  wet.  The  only  effectual  remedy  for  this  defect  ia 


Soils  and  Manures. 


33 


thorough  underdraining.  This  not  only  draws  off  the  surplus 
water,  but  opens  the  soil  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere, 
which,  in  its  passage  through  it,  imparts  its  nutritive  gases,  and 
helps  to  warm  and  disintegrate  it.  Deep  trenching  will  aid  in 
the  process  of  draining.* 

Having  thoroughly  drained  your  plot,  you  should  next  give 
your  attention  to  improving  the  texture  of  the  soil  in  other 
ways.  The  natural  remedy  for  their  too  dense  and  adhesive 
character  seems  to  be  sand ; but  to  produce  the  des?>d  effect 
large  quantities  are  required — so  large  that  the  improvement 
in  that  way  of  large  tracts  of  land  is  considered  impracticable. 
In  treating  a small  garden,  however,  the  expense  of  the  appli- 
cation may  often  be  disregarded. 

Lime  is  a valuable  auxiliary  in  the  improvement  of  clayey 
soils,  forming,  with  their  ingredients,  chemical  combinations, 
whereby  their  extreme  tenacity  is  broken  up,  and  adding,  at 
the  same  time,  an  element  of  fertility,  in  which  they  may  be 
deficient.  Gypsum,  or  plaster  of  Paris,  has  the  same  effect  in 
a still  more  powerful  degree.  Ashes,  coarse  vegetable  manures, 
straw,  corn-stalks,  leaves,  chips,  etc.,  are  also  very  useful,  as 
they  add  new  materials,  and  also  help  to  separate  the  particles 
of  the  original  soil. 

In  cold  climates,  clayey  soils  should  be  plowed  or  dug  in  the 
fall,  the  action  of  the  frost  and  snow  tending  to  break  them  up 
and  destroy  the  adhesion  of  their  particles.  In  the  South, 
where  there  is  little  frost,  and  frequent  and  copious  rains  occur 
during  the  winter,  this  course  is  injurious  rather  than  beneficial 

The  frequent  working  of  clayey  soils  with  plow,  harrow, 
spade,  or  hoe,  if  done  when  they  are  not  too  wet,  will  greatly 
improve  them. 

A persevering  application  of  the  various  means  we  have 
indicated,  will  gradually  bring  the  heaviest  clay  soil  into  the 
proper  loamy  consistency  for  horticultural  purposes. 

A loamy  soil  resting  upon  a clayey  subsoil  should  in  general 


* For  a chapter  on  Draining,  see  “ The  Farm.” 
2* 


The  Garden. 


SL 

be  underdrained ; but  if  the  stratum  of  clay  be  shallow,  trench- 
ing or  subsoil  plowing  will  answer  a good  purpose. 

Improvement  of  Sandy  Soils. — If  your  plot  be  sandy,  ita 
improvement,  though  equally  necessary,  is  less  difficult.  The 
defects  of  sandy  soils,  as  we  have  seen,  are  lack  of  adhesive- 
ness, want  of  affinity  for  water,  and  a leachy  character,  which 
permits  the  escape  of  manures.  Olay  is  the  principal  remedy 
indicated,  and  a few  loads,  well  incorporated  with  the  original 
soil,  will  have  an  astonishing  effect  in  improving  a sandy  gar- 
den. The  required  tenacity  is  thus  very  readily  imparted. 

Lime  is  scarcely  less  valuable  for  application  to  sandy  than 
to  clayey  soils ; for  while  it  separates  the  latter,  it  renders  the 
former  more  adhesive.  Gypsum,  ashes,  and  clay  marls  are 
also  exceedingly  useful.  To  these  applications  should  be  added 
the  frequent  use  of  a heavy  roller. 

Where  a sandy  soil  rests  upon  a clayey  subsoil,  as  is  not  un- 
frequently  the  case,  it  may  be  greatly  improved  by  trenching 
or  deep  plowing,  by  means  of  which  a portion  of  the  subsoil 
is  thrown  up  and  mixed  with  the  surface  soil. 

Sandy  soils,  modified  as  we  have  indicated,  being  warm, 
quick,  and  easy  of  cultivation,  are  the  best  in  the  world  for 
tap-rooted  plants  and  bulbs,  and  for  the  production  of  early 
crops  of  almost  every  kind. 

Gravelly'  soils  resemble  sandy  soils  in  their  characteristic 
defects,  and  require  similar  treatment ; but  they  are  less  desir- 
able, and  require  greater  modifications  to  adapt  them  to  gar- 
dening purposes. 

The  other  soils  named  require  similar  treatment  in  proportion 
as  they  approach  the  clayey  or  sandy  character. 

Depth  of  Soil. — The  soil  of  most  gardens  (except  on  the 
alluvial  bottoms  of  the  West)  requires  improvement  in  depth 
quite  as  much  as  in  any  other  particular.  In  no  part  of  your 
garden  should  you  be  satisfied  with  less  than  two  feet  of  good, 
friable  soil,  easily  permeable  by  the  roots  of  plants.  A still 
greater  depth  is  desirable,  especially  in  the  fruit  department. 
Few  who  haT_e  not  had  their  attention  special!)  Irawn  to  the 


Soils  and  Manures. 


35 


subject  are  aware  how  deeply  the  roots  of  some  species  of 
plants  penetrate,  when  permitted  by  a proper  state  of  the  soil. 
The  roots  of  a strawberry  plant  are  said  to  have  been  traced 
five  feet  in  a deep,  rich  soil. 

Trenching  and  subsoil  plowing  are  the  processes  by  which 
the  depth  of  soil  is  increased.  The  former  is  an  expensive 
process,  but,  in  gardening,  a remunerative  one;  the  latter  is 
much  cheaper,  and,  where  it  can  he  applied,  serves  a good 
purpose. 

Trenching,  or  subsoil  plowing,  is  positively  essential  where 
the  summers  are  long  and  dry,  as  in  portions  of  the  Southern 
States.  Mr.  White,  in  his  “Gardening  for  the  South,”  says 
very  truly  that  there  is  no  point  of  greater  importance  than 
this.  “Poor  ground,  deeply  moved,”  he  adds,  “is  better  than 
rich  land  with  shallow  tillage;  and  when  the  ground  has  been 
once  prepared  in  this  way,  it  will  feel  the  benefit  forever  after. 
Increasing  the  depth  of  the  soil  in  this  mode  is,  to  all  intents 
and  purposes,  increasing  the  size  of  your  garden ; for  one  fourth 
of  an  acre  thus  prepared  will  yield,  in  a dry  season,  as  much 
as  an  acre  will  with  shallow  tillage,  and  the  growth  of  plants 
in  good  seasons  will  be  fully  doubled.” 

Trenching  should  be  performed  in  the  fall,  and  any  coarse 
manures  you  may  wish  to  apply  dug  in  at  the  time.  For  a 
description  of  the  process  of  trenching,  see  Chapter  III. 

Color  of  Soils. — The  color  of  a soil  has  an  important  relation 
to  its  capacity  for  heat  and  moisture,  and  consequently  to  its 
adaptedness  for  horticultural  purposes.  Dark-colored  earths, 
all  other  things  being  equal,  are  the  best. 

Old  Gardens. — Some  old  and  small  gardens  are  in  a very 
bad  state  from  excess  of  nutritive  matters,  or  rather  from  the 
unavailable  state  in  which  these  matters  exist  in  the  soil,  which, 
instead  of  consisting  of  friable  mold,  presents  only  a black, 
shining  substance,  known  to  chemists  as  humic  acid.  This  is 
the  product  of  manures  saturated  wTith  stagnant  water,  and  is 
the  result  of  excessive  manuring,  frequent  watering,  and  lack 
of  drainage,  "No  condition  can  be  more  unfavorable  to  the 


36 


The  Garden. 


growth  of  plants  than  this,  and  if  they  grow  at  all  in  such  soil 
they  will  be  gross,  pungent,  and  unwholesome.  The  remedy  is 
trenching,  underdraining,  and  the  application  of  lime,  gypsum, 
ashes,  etc. 

Further  means  of  improving  soils  will  be  treated  of  in  the 
next  section,  under  the  head  of  Manures. 

III.— MANURES. 

If  your  soil  he  either  wholly  or  partially  deficient  in  any  of 
the  constituents  of  plants,  these  constituents  must  be  supplied 
by  adding  to  it  substances  which  contain  them.  The  substances 
thus  added  are  called  manures,  which,  in  the  broadest  sense  of 
the  word,  embrace  everything  which,  being  added  to  the  soil, 
promotes  directly  or  indirectly  the  growth  of  plants. 

Manures  directly  assist  the  growth  of  plants  either  by  enter- 
ing into  their  composition,  or  by  absorbing  moisture  and  nutri- 
tive gases  from  the  atmosphere,  and  holding  them  for  their  use. 
Indirectly,  manures  assist  the  growth  of  plants  by  destroying 
vermin  or  weeds,  by  decomposing  the  soil  and  rendering  its 
elements  available,  by  protecting  vegetation  from  sudden 
changes  of  temperature,  or  by  improving  the  texture  of  the 
soil.  They  are  divided  into  two  classes — organic  and  inorganic. 
The  former  embraces  ordinary  vegetable  and  animal  substances, 
and  the  latter  mineral  substances. 

Organic' Manures. — The  principal  organic  manures  are  the 
dung  of  animals,  human  excrements,  urine,  flesh,  blood,  fish, 
swamp-muck,  sea-weed,  and  decayed  leaves,  hay,  straw,  and 
wood.  Guano,  though  an  animal  product,  contains  so  large  a 
proportion  of  salts,  and  is  so  deficient  in  the  characteristics  of 
recent  animal  matter  that  it  is  generally  classed  with  the  inor- 
ganic manures. 

Inorganic  Manures. — The  principal  inorganic  manures  are 
ashes,  lime,  the  marls,  gypsum,  bones,  salt,  charcoal,  soot,  and 
guano. 

Theory  of  Manures. — The  kind  of  manure  which  will  prove 
most  useful  in  a given  instance  must  be  determined  by  reler* 


Soils  and  Manures. 


37 


ence  to  several  circumstances — tlie  chemical  composition  and 
mechanical  texture  of  the  soil,  the  character  of  the  climate  or 
season,  and  the  kind  of  crop  to  be  produced.  The  manures 
most  generally  applicable  are  those  composed  of  substances 
which  directly  enter  into  and  are  essential  to  the  growth  of 
plants. 

The  fertility  of  a forest  is  not  only  maintained  but  increased 
oy  the  constant  decay  of  its  leaves,  branches,  and  trunks, 
which  returns  to  the  earth  not  only  the  nutritive  matter  origin- 
ally drawn  from  it,  but  also  much  that  has  been  supplied  by 
the  atmosphere.  This  manure  is  just  what  the  trees  need — it 
keeps  good  the  supply  of  the  elements  essential  to  their  growth. 
So  the  parts  of  any  plant  decayed  and  rendered  soluble  are  the 
best  manure  for  its  species.  But  the  products  of  our  gardens 
are  mainly  taken  from  them,  and  used  as  food.  Every  particle 
not  thus  made  use  of  should  be  returned,  mixed  with  other 
vegetable  and  animal  matter,  in  the  form  of  compost.  For  the 
rest,  stable  manures  (of  which  the  dung  of  the  horse  is  the  best) 
should  be  relied  on  as  the  grand  staples. 

All  the  ordinarily  cultivated  plants,  as  has  already  been 
stated,  contain  potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  alumina,  silica, 
iron,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  chlorine,  carbon,  oxygen,  nitrogen, 
and  hydrogen.  The  four  substances  last  named  may,  as  we 
have  seen,  be  derived  either  immediately  or  remotely  from  the 
air ; but  they  are  all  essentials  of  a fertile  soil,  and,  to  perpetu- 
ate its  fertility  under  cultivation,  must  be  supplied  in  the  form 
of  manures. 

Stable  Manure . — Common  stable  manure  contains  potash, 
soda,  lime,  magnesia,  alumina,  silica,  oxyd  of  iron,  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  chlorine,  carbon,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  hydrogen. 
Lime  exists  both  as  a carbonate  and  as  a phosphate,  potash  as 
a muriate  and  a sulphate,  and  soda  as  a carbonate.  A compari- 
son of  this  list  of  chemical  substances  with  those  enumerated 
in  the  preceding  paragraph  as  the  essentials  of  a fertile  soil, 
will  at  once  show  the  value  of  stable  manure.  Every  part  of 
it  has  been  formed  from  vegeta bh  substances,  and  it  has  only 


38 


The  Garden. 


to  be  rendered  friable  and  soluble  to  enter  again  into  then 
composition.  As  plants  can  not,  it  will  be  remembered,  absorb 
manures  in  a gross  or  solid  form,  the  last  point  is  an  important 
one,  and  of  uniyersal  application. 

Niglt  Soil. — Human  excrements,  composted  with  charcoal' 
dust,  leaves,  turf,  loam,  etc.,  form  a most  powerful  fertilize?*. 
Quicklime  should  never  be  mixed  with  night-soil,  for  while  it 
neutralizes  the  odor,  it  also  expels  its  fertilizing  qualities. 

The  Dung  of  Fowls. — The  dung  of  fowls  contains  the  essen- 
tial qualities  of  guano,  and  is  next  to  night-soil  in  value.  It 
should  be  kept  dry,  or  else  mixed  at  once  with  a compost  which 
will  retain  all  the  volatile  and  soluble  matters  which  it  contains. 

Other  Organic  Manures. — Dead  animals,  blood,  butchers’ 
offal,  fish,  hair,  bristles,  hay,  straw,  leaves,  sea-weed  muck, 
rich  turf,  the  refuse  from  the  kitchen,  and  the  slops  from  the 
chamber  are  all  of  great  value  as  materials  for  a compost. 

Ashes. — If  any  dried  vegetable  product  be  burned,  the  incom- 
bustible substance  remaining  behind  is  called  the  ash  or  ashes. 
This,  though  generally  less  than  one  tenth  of  its  substance,  is 
all  that  the  plant  necessarily  derived  from  the  soil.  The  sub- 
stances expelled  are  carbon,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  hydrogen. 
They  return  to  the  air,  from  which  they  were  either  immedi- 
ately or  remotely  derived.  The  ashes  of  vegetables,  then,  fur- 
nish j^str  the  inorganic  elements  required  for  their  growth. 
Their  value  as  a manure  is  evident,  and  it  is  astonishing  that 
any  person  with  a garden  or  a farm  can  allow  a spoonful  of 
them  to  be  wasted.  Leached  ashes  contain  all  the  elements  of 
the  unleached,  but  are  somewhat  less  valuable  from  having  lost 
a portion  of  their  potash  and  soda.  Coal  ashes,  though  inferior 
to  wood  ashes,  are  still  very  valuable  as  manure. 

Lime. — We  have  already  spoken  of  the  value  of  lime  in  im- 
pro^  ing  the  texture  of  soils.  It  also  condenses  and  retains  the 
volatile  gases  brought  in  contact  with  it  by  the  air  and  rains, 
and  converts  the  insoluble  matters  of  the  soil  into  available  food 
for  plants,  besides  entering  itself  directly  into  the  composition 
of  nearly  all  vegetation. 


Soils  and  Manures. 


39 


The  Marls. — Marls  are  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime  mixed 
with  clay,  sand,  loam,  and  frequently  with  phosphate  and  sul- 
phate of  lime  and  potash,  and  are  valuable  as  manures  in  pro- 
portion to  the  lime  and  potash  they  contain. 

Guano. — This  substance  is  composed  of  the  dung,  food,  and 
carcasses  of  sea-birds  which  have  been  accumulating  for  ages  on 
some  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans.  Of  its 
value  as  a manure  there  can  be  no  doubt.  There  is  much 
fraud  in  its  sale,  however,  and  if  great  caution  be  not  exercised, 
an  adulterated  article  may  be  palmed  off  upon  you.  It  must 
never,  in  a fresh  state,  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  seeds  or 
roots  of  plants,  as  it  is  certain  to  destroy  their  vitality. 

Other  Inorganic  Manures . — Common  salt  is  valuable  in  small 
quantities  for  garden  use.  On  account  of  its  great  affinity  for 
water,  it  attracts  the  dews  and  atmospheric  vapors,  and  is 
therefore  a preventive  of  drouth.  It  is  also  useful  in  destroy- 
ing worms,  slugs,  and  larvaa.  Old  plaster,  broken  bricks,  bones, 
charcoal,  soot,  and  even  broken  glass,  are  useful  as  manures,  and 
should  be  carefully  saved  and  applied. 

Having  said  so  much  of  the  various  manures,  we  must  repeat, 
in  order  to  impress  it  upon  the  reader’s  mind,  that  our  principal 
reliance  should  be  upon  stable  manure  (with  which  we  would 
include  that  from  the  pig-sty)  and  the  composts  formed  of 
home-made  materials,  according  to  directions  we  are  about  to 
give.  The  special  manures  most  likely  to  be  required  by  soil/ 
in  general  are  lime,  phosphate  of  lime,  and  potash. 

Composts . — In  or  near  the  garden,  and  in  some  out-of-sight 
corner,  there  should  be  at  all  times  a compost  heap  for  receiving 
all  kinds  of  rubbish  that  can  have  the  least  value  as  manure. 

Make  a shallow  excavation  of  sufficient  size,  and  a little 
lower  at  one  end  than  at  the  other,  forming  with  the  earth 
thrown  out  a small  embankment  all  around  it.  Into  this  throw 
green  weeds,  the  sweepings  of  the  yard,  the  refuse  of  vegeta- 
bles, leaves,  decayed  vegetable  matter  of  all  kinds,  woolen  rags, 
old  plaster,  charcoal-dust,  soot,  soap-suds,  brine,  slops  from  the 
kitchen  and  chambers,  etc.  The  heap  should  be  dug  over  ocoo- 


40 


The  Garden. 


sionally,  adding  a little  ashes  and  lime.  Animal  manures 
should  be  composted  in  a separate  heap,  to  which  ashes  and 
lime  should  not  be  added,  as  they  would  do  harm  by  setting 
free  the  ammonia.  In  the  latter  case,  charcoal-dust,  plaster  of 
Paris,  and  vegetable  mold,  leaves,  turf,  or  swamp-muck  should 
be  used. 

One  who  has  never  tried  the  experiment  of  carefully  hus- 
banding the  elements  of  fertility  which  accumulate  about  a 
house,  yard,  and  garden  will  be  astonished  at  the  annual  amount 
and  value  of  the  compost  which  may,  with  very  little  trouble, 
be  thus  manufactured.  Try  it.* 


* For  a more  complete  exposition  of  the  Whole  subject  of  Soils  and 
mires,  see  “ The  Farm.” 


Formation  of  a Garden. 


41 


III. 


FORMATION  OF  A GARDEN. 

Nothing  conduces  mor.  to  the  successful  completion  of  any  piece  of  work  than  a gi  od  begin* 
ning. — A.  Nonne. 

I.— SITUATION. 


S it  is  desirable,  if  not  absolutely  necessary, 
that  the  garden  should  be  placed  near  the 
house,  the  situation  of  which  must  be  de- 
termined, in  part,  at  least,  by  independent 
considerations,  our  range  for  the  selection 
of  a plot  is  generally  quite  limited.  But  it 
is  well  to  know  what  kind  of  a situation  is  best,  that 
we  may  exercise  understanding^  any  liberty  of  choice 
that  may  be  allowed  us. 

For  early  crops  a southeastern  exposure,  with  a slight 
inclination,  is  best,  as  it  receives  the  full  benefit  of  the 
morning  sun.  If  sheltered  on  the  north  and  northwest  by 
higher  grounds  or  by  trees  or  high  walls,  so  much  the  better. 
In  warm  climates,  however,  a northwestern  exposure  is  better 
for  many  garden  crops. 

In  selecting  a situation  for  a garden,  reference  should  also  be 
had  to  soil.  If  this  be  originally  good,  the  expense  of  making 
it  so,  artificially,  will  be  saved,  and  only  ordinary  manuring 
required.  Diversity  of  soils  and  exposures  are  also  desirable 
combinations  of  advantages.  Proximity  to  water  is  important, 
but  very  low  grounds  are,  if  possible,  to  be  avoided. 


II.— SIZE  AND  SHAPE. 

The  size  of  a garden  will  naturally  depend  mainly  upon  the 
wants,  tastes,  and  means  of  its  owner.  An  acre  is  not  too 
much,  but  one  half  or  even  one  fourth  of  an  acre,  well  ma- 


42 


The  Garden. 


nured  and  skillfully  cultivated,  will  furnish  vegetables  and  fruits 
sufficient  for  the  use  of  a small  family.  If  you  can  consist- 
ently appropriate  an  acre  or  more  for  the  purpose  of  a garden, 
do  not  he  content  with  less.  You  will  find  a ready  market  for 
its  surplus  products,  and  at  high  prices,  too,  unless  you  happen 
to  he  situated  at  a great  distance  from  any  city  or  large  town. 

The  form  of  a garden,  like  its  situation  and  size,  must  depend 
upon  circumstances.  For  convenience  in  laying  out  and  culti- 
vation, a square  or  a parallelogram  is  a good  shape.  If  the 
form  be  a parallelogram,  it  is  better  that  it  should  extend  from 
east  to  west  than  from  north  to  south. 

III.— LAYING  OUT. 

The  fruit  and  kitchen  garden  are  to  he  looked  upon  from  an 
economical  rather  than  an  esthetic  point  of  view,  and  their 
internal  arrangement  should  he  simple,  and,  so  far  as  circum- 
stances will  permit,  regular  and  geometrical.  In  laying  out  a 
flower-garden  or  a lawn,  however,  no  matter  how  small  it  may 
be,  there  is  room  for  the  exercise  of  taste  and  the  creation  of 
beauty ; and  we  will  reserve  our  directions  on  that  point  for 
the  chapters  devoted  specially  to  those  topics,  confining  our- 
selves here  to  the  fruit  and  kitchen  departments. 

Whether  within  the  same  inclosure  or  not,  the  flower-garden 
will  naturally  be  placed  nearest  the  house.  Passing  through 
that,  we  enter  the  kitchen  department,  beyond  which  is  the 
fruit-garden.  It  is  better,  however,  in  some  cases  to  reverse 
the  order  of  the  last  two,  placing  the  fruit  department  next 
the  flower-garden.  In  small  gardens,  too,  these  departments 
necessarily  intermingle  to  some  extent;  but  this  should  be 
avoided  so  far  as  is  possible,  as  the  trees  are  very  detrimei  tal 
to  other  crops — shading  the  ground,  injuring  tender  plants  by 
the  drippings  from  their  branches,  and  exhausting  the  soil  by 
means  of  the  heavy  drafts  made  upon  it  by  their  roots.  Dwarf 
pears  may  be  admitted  into  the  vegetable  department  with 
comparative  impunity,  provided  the  soil  is  sufficiently  ma- 
nured to  withstand  the  double  demand  thus  made  upon  it. 


Formation  of  a Garden. 


43 


A large  garden  should  have  a walk  through  the  center,  ex- 
tending  the  whole  length,  with  a turning  place  at  the  extremity, 
and  broad  enough  to  admit  a cart  for  bringing  in  the  manure 
and  conveying  the  heavier  crops  to  the  cellar  or  other  place 
of  storage.  This  walk  may  be  crossed  by  another  at  right 
angles,  and  both  should  be  bordered  with  currant  or  gooseberry 
bushes,  or  other  shrubs.  In  small  gardens  these  walks  may  be 
narrow  and  without  borders,  or  may  be  omitted  altogether. 
A border  from  four  to  twelve  feet  wide,  and  skirted  by  a walk 
three  or  four  feet  wide,  should  run  entirely  around  the  garden. 
The  smaller  compartments  need  not  be  separated  by  permanent 
walks,  and  their  arrangement  must  be  left  to  be  decided  by  the 
circumstances  of  each  case. 

The  only  general  direction  that  seems  necessary  in  reference 
to  laying  out  the  fruit  department  is,  that  care  should  be  taken 
to  give  the  less  hardy  trees  the  most  sheltered  and  warmest 
position,  and  to  so  dispose  the  various  kinds  that  the  larger 
trees  shall  not  shade  and  dwarf  the  smaller.  The  fruit-garde® 
should  have  its  wall-borders  for  the  cultivation  of  raspberries, 
blackberries,  currants,  gooseberries,  etc.  (unless  these,  as  is 
generally  the  case  in  small  gardens,  are  transferred  to  the  bor- 
ders of  the  kitchen  department),  and  its  trellises  and  arbors 
for  grapevines. 

IV.— FENCING. 

A garden  should  be  surrounded  by  a close  fence,  at  least  seven 
feet  high,  and  picketed,  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  thieves. 
The  height  and  closeness  of  the  fence  will  increase  the  warmth 
of  the  air,  break  the  force  of  high  winds,  which  might  injure 
tender  plants  and  trees,  and  prevent,  in  a measure,  the  seeds 
of  weeds  from  being  driven  into  it  by  the  wind.  A close  board 
fence,  however,  is  an  unsightly  object,  and  a high  close  hedge, 
so  soon  as  it  can  be  grown,  may  advantageously  take  its  plaoe. 
The  Osage  Orange  and,  at  the  South,  the  Cherokee  and  single- 
white Macartney  roses  are  suitable  for  this  purpose. 


u 


The  Garden. 


V.— PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL. 

1.  Draining. — If  your  soil  require  draining,  this  is  the  first 
thing  to  he  attended  to.  If  in  digging  a hole  two  feet  deep, 
water  be  found  to  collect  and  stand  in  it,  even  during  the  wettest 
times,  you  may  be  sure  that  draining  is  required.  “No  one,” 
J.  J.  Thomas  says,  “who  has  never  given  draining  a full  and 
fair  trial  can  appreciate  its  importance.  Very  often  the  soil 
may  he  worked  and  planted  from  two  to  four  weeks  earlier  in 
the  spring — a most  important  advantage  for  early  vegetables. 
Scarcely  less  is  the  benefit  during  the  rest  of  the  season  in  pre- 
venting hard-baked  soil  in  times  of  drouth.”  Do  not  neglect 
this  on  account  of  the  expense.  No  operation  in  gardening 
“ pays”  better.  A quarter  of  an  acre  well  underdrained  will 
be  more  valuable  than  an  acre  of  wet,  cold,  tenacious,  undrained 
soil.  Dig  parallel  ditches  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  apart, 
and  from  three  to  four  feet  deep,  forming  a slightly  inclined 
plane  on  the  bottom,  which  may  be  from  six  inches  to  a foot 
wide.  These  ditches  may  be  filled  to  a sufficient  depth  with 
rubble-stones  or  brush,  and  then  covered  with  soil,  if  the  arched 
tiles  or  tubes  of  burned  clay,  now  mostly  used,  can  not  be  pro- 
cured. The  average  expense  of  the  best  underdraining  is  esti- 
mated at  only  from  twelve  to  eighteen  dollars  an  acre. 

2.  Trenching . — We  have  already  (in  Chapter  II.)  spoken  of 
the  necessity  of  depth  of  soil  for  horticultural  purposes,  and 
especially  for  the  growth  of  trees,  and  of  the  means  for  deep- 
ening soils  naturally  too  shallow,  as  nearly  all  are.  Trenching 
is  thus  performed  : 

“ At  one  end  of  the  plot  to  be  trenched,  dig  with  the  spade 
a trench  three  feet  wide  and  at  least  two  feet  deep,  throwing 
the  earth  out  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  plot.  Now  open  an- 
other trench  of  the  same  width,  and  put  the  surface  spadeful 
of  this  into  the  bottom  of  the  former  trench,  and  the  next 
spadeful  upon  that,  until  it  is  opened  to  the  depth  of  the  first 
one.  When  the  plot  is  entirely  trenched  in  this  way,  the  last 
trench  will  remain  open,  and  must  be  filled  with  the  earth 


Formation  of  a Garden. 


45 


thrown  out  from  the  first  one.  If  the  subsoil  be  poor  and 
gravelly,  it  is  better  to  take  off  the  first  spadeful,  and  then 
loosen  the  bottom  to  the  required  depth  without  bringing  it  to 
the  surface.  If  the  soil  require  it,  as  it  generally  will,  layers 
of  manure  may  be  added  to  those  of  earth  alternately.” 

3.  Subsoil  Flowing. — The  expense  of  trenching  being  great, 
where  the  plot  to  be  prepared  is  la  ge,  subsoil  plowing  may  be 
substituted,  similar  results  in  a somewhat  inferior  degree  being 
obtained.  In  subsoiling,  a common  turning  plow  goes  first,  and 
the  subsoil  plow  follows,  loosening  the  earth  to  the  required 
depth  below  the  bottom  of  the  ordinary  furrow,  but  not  turn- 
ing it  up. 

The  foregoing  preparatory  operations  being  thoroughly  per- 
formed, we  may  consider  the  garden  ready  for  the  ordinary 
processes  of  cultivation.  Of  these  we  shall  speak  in  another 
chapter. 


46 


The  Garden. 


IY. 


IMPLEMENTS  AND  FIXTURES. 

Next  to  knowledge  and  skill  are  good  tools. — The  Workman. 


I.— IMPLEMENTS. 


OU  should  supply  yourself  with  good  irn* 
plements  of  the  various  kinds  essential  to 
the  proper  performance  of  every  necessary 
operation.  To  purchase  those  of  an  infe- 
rior quality  because  they  can  be  procured 
at  a somewhat  lower  price  is  false  economy.  Ex- 
perience will  prove  them  the  more  costly  in  the 
end.  They  soon  get  out  of  repair  and  become 
useless ; besides,  in  their  best  estate,  much  less 
work  can  he  accomplished  with  them,  and  that 


imperfectly. 

The  Spade. — It  is  convenient  to  have  several  spades  of  dif- 
ferent sizes,  but  a hTo.  2 of  Ames’  cast  steel  will  serve  for  most 
purposes.  For  the  flower-garden,  a lady  needs  a smaller  and 
lighter  one,  manufactured  especially  for  feminine  use. 

The  Shovel. — A shovel  is  necessary  for  loading  and  spreading 
composts  and  for  various  other  operations.  The  round-pointed 
ones  are  perhaps  more  generally  useful  in  a garden  than  the 
square-bladed. 

Hoes. — You  need  several  hoes,  of  different  sizes  and  shapes. 
The  common  square  draw-hoes  are  7most  used.  They  are  of 
various  sizes.  One  of  three  or  four  and  another  of  six  or  seven 
inches  will  he  found  most  useful.  To  these  it  is  desirable  to 
add  a pronged  hoe,  a thrust-hoe,  and  a triangular  draw -hoe. 
The  latter  is  useful  for  digging  furrows  for  seeds. 

BaJces.-^ The  garden  rake  should  he  of  the  best  wrought 


Implements  and  Fixtures.  47 


iron,  with  teeth  about  two  and  a half  inches  iong  and  one  and 
a half  inches  apart.  The  handle  should  be  from  six  to  eight 
feet  long.  Drill-rakes,  which  are  very  useful,  if  not  indis- 
pensable, are  made  of  wood,  with  obtusely-pointed  teeth,  three 
or  four  in  number,  placed  at  a greater  or  less  distance  apart, 
for  sowing  different  seeds.  In  using  the  drill-rake  a line  is 
stretched  to  guide  it  in  making  the  first  drill,  and  afterward  the 
first  tooth  is  kept  in  the  drill  last  made,  as  a guide,  and  thus 
all  the  rows  in  a long  bed  can  be  made  perfectly  parallel. 
Several  different  sizes  are  required. 

The  Trowel. — The  trowel  is  very  useful  for  removing  plants, 
with  balls  of  earth  for  transplanting.  It  should  be  from  five 
to  nine  inches  long,  exclusive  of  the  handle. 

The  Dibber . — This  is  a short  piece  of  round  wood,  obtusely 
pointed.  A serviceable  one  may  be  made  from  an  old  spade 
or  shovel  handle. 

The  Reel  and  Line . — These  are  essential — at  least  the  linei, 
which  may  be  used  without  the  reel — where  anything  like 
straight  rows  and  regularity  are  desired.  The  reel  may  bo 
either  of  wood  or  of  iron. 

The  Watering  Pot . — One  boiling  four  gallons  is  the  best 
size.  It  should  be  made  of  double  tin,  and  kept  well  painted. 

Garden  Shears . — These  are  of  various  sizes,  and  are  used 
for  clipping  hedges  and  many  other  purposes.  The  seven  and 
nine-inch  size  are  very  convenient.  There  is  a smaller  article 
made  expressly  for  the  ladies. 

The  Saw. — The  pruning  saw  is  from  fourteen  to  eighteen 
inches  long,  and  is  made  with  fine  teeth  and  a hooked  handle, 
for  hanging  on  the  limb  of  a tree. 

Knives . — A pruning  knife  of  modern  size  and  a budding 
knife  will  be  essential  in  the  fruit-garden. 

Hand-Glasses. — Hand-glasses,  either  made  of  panes  set  in 
boxes,  or  bell-glasses,  are  necessary  for  protecting  early  plants 
of  the  tomato,  egg-plant,  etc. 

Ladders. — A lighfe,  common  ladder  and  a standing  ladder 
will  be  found  indispensable  in  the  fruit  department. 


48 


The  Garden. 


The  Wheelbarrow. — Tlie  wheelbarrow  is  exceedingly  useful 
in  the  smallest  garden,  and  in  a large  one  absolutely  indispens- 
able. It  should  be  light,  but  strongly  made. 

Additional. — Several  other  implements  are  desirable,  and  in 
particular  cases  indispensable,  among  which  are,  a crowbar , a 
pick,  a manure  fork,  a forked  spade , pruning  shears , a garden 
roller , a lawn  scythe , a hedge  hook , nine  scissors , a hand-culth* 
vator , aw  orchardisfs  hook,  a hand-syringe,  etc. 

The  plow,  subsoil  plow,  and  cultivator  belong  rather  to  the 
farm,  and  if  you  cultivate  only  a small  garden,  you  will  find  it 
more  economical  to  pay  for  the  occasional  use  of  these  imple- 
ments than  to  invest  money  in  their  purchase. 

Preservation  of  Implements. — Having  procured  implements 
of  a good  quality,  do  not  allow  them  to  be  destroyed  for  the 
lack  of  a little  care  on  your  part.  An  implement  that  in  the 
hands  of  a careful  and  economical  gardener  will  last  and  con- 
tinue serviceable  for  ten  years  may  be  ruined  in  a single  season 
by  a negligent  and  wasteful  one. 

In  or  near  the  garden  should  be  a tool-house  or  a room  set 
apart  for  the  purpose  of  storing  the  implements  when  not  in 
use.  Carefully  clean  your  spades,  hoes,  and  other  implements 
of  steel  or  iron,  before  returning  them  to  their  place.  Imple- 
ments of  wood  should  be  painted. 

II.— FIXTURES,  ETC. 

The  gardens  and  grounds  of  every  rural  residence  of  taste 
should  have  seats,  arbors,  and  other  structures  of  rustic  work 
— that  is,  work  made  of  the  trunks  and  branches  of  trees,  with 
their  bark  on  and  in  their  natural  forms.  They  may  be  cheaply 
erected,  and  will  add  greatly  to  the  out-of-door  attractions. 
The  tool-house  we  have  recommended  may  be  of  this  charac- 
ter, and  be  made  ornamental  as  well  as  useful.* 

Pits. — What  is  called  a sunk  pit  is  made  by  excavating  the 
earth  and  forming  walls  of  brick,  stone,  or  boards.  These  are 


* See  “ The  House,”  for  designs  and  descriptions. 


Implements  and  Fixtures. 


49 


sometimes  covered  with  glass  frames,  and  at  other  times  with 
mats  or  boards.  They  are  mostly  used  for  the  preservation  of 
vegetables,  such  as  celery,  endive,  lettuce,  cauliflower,  etc. 
The  walled  'pit  is  partly  sunk  in  the  ground  and  partly  above 
it.  The  walls  are  formed  of  brick  or  stone,  finished  with  a 
wooden  or  stone  cop- 
ing, and  covered  with 
movable  glazed  sashes. 

Of  this  pit  Buist  says : 

“There  is  no  ap- 
pendage to  the  garden 
of  greater  utility  than 

this  pit.  It  is  two  feet  the  walled  pit. 

under  ground  and  one  foot  above  it  in  front,  and  two  feet  above 
it  at  the  back,  and  six  or  seven  feet  wide  in  the  clear.  It  is 
an  excellent  winter  apartment  for  plants  when  covered  with 
sash  and  mats.  Filled  with  very  rich  earth,  it  produces  very 
fine  cauliflowers,  which  will  be  in  use  from  March  to  May.  If 
filled  with  warm  manure  early  in  February,  it  will  produce 
cucumbers  that  will  be  in  use  from  April  to  July,  or  radishes 
and  small  salading  in  any  quantity.” 

Hot  Beds. — The  common  hot-bed  frame  is  a bottomless  box 


of  wood,  with  a sloping  top  and  covered  with  a sash.  It  may 
be  of  any  length  or  breadth,  but  from  four  to  six  feet  wide, 
and  from  six  to  ten  feet  long  is  h good  size.  The  sashes  are 
made  without  cross-bars,  the  glass  overlapping  like  the  shingles 
of  a house.  The  glass  should  be  proportionally  much  smaller 
than  it  is  represented  in  our  engraving — not  larger  than  seven- 
by-nine  at  most.  The  lap  of  the  panes  should  not  be  over 

a 


50 


The  Garden. 


half  an  inch.  It  should  he  bedded  in  soft  putty,  and  the  sash 
well  painted.  The  sashes  should  he  made  to  slide  in  grooves, 
so  as  to  be  conveniently  moved  whenever  the  bed  may  require 
to  he  opened,  either  wholly  or  partially,  to  the  air.*  The 
whole  should  he  kept  under  cover  when  not  in  use.  Directions 
for  preparing  hot-beds  will  he  found  in  the  next  chapter,  under 
the  head  of  “ Forcing.” 

Trellises. — Every  garden  should  have  one  or  more  trellises 
for  vines.  They  are  of  different  kinds  to  adapt  them  to  differ- 
ent situations  and  purposes.  The  posts  should  be  made  of  some 
durable  wood.  Red  cedar  is  the  best.  Under  the  head  of  the 
grape  we  shall  describe  the  construction  of  the  trellises  required 
for  its  support.  Designs  for  ornamental  trellis-work  may  be 
found  in  u The  House.” 


* Instead  of  the  sashes  for  covering  the  frames,  the  following  mode,  called 
the  German  plan,  may  perhaps  be  adopted  with  advantage ; but  we  have  not 
tried  it : 

“ Take  white  cotton  cloth,  of  a close  texture,  stretch,  and  nail  it  on  frames 
of  any  size  you  wish ; take  two  ounces  of  lime-water,  four  ounces  of  linseed 
oil,  one  of  white  of  eggs,  two  ounces  of  yellow  of  eggs ; mix  the  lime  and  oil 
with  very  gentle  heat,  beat  the  eggs  separately,  and  mix  them  with  the  former  ; 
spread  this  mixture  with  a paint-brush  over  the  cotton,  allowing  each  coat  to 
dry  befgre  applying  another,  until  they  become  water-proof.  The  following 
are  the  advantages  this  shade  possesses  over  glass  ones : 1.  The  cost  being 
hardly  one  fourth.  2.  Repairs  are  easily  and  cheaply  made.  3.  The  light. 
They  do  not  require  watering ; no  matter  how  intense  the  heat  of  the  sun,  the 
plants  are  never  struck  down  or  burned,  or  checked  in  growth,  neither  do  they 
grow  up  long,  sick,  and  weakly,  as  they  do  under  glass,  and  still  there  is 
abundance  of  light.  4.  The  heat  arising  entirely  from  below  is  more  equable 
and  temperate,  which  is  a great  object.  The  vapor  rising  from  the  manure 
and  earth  is  condensed  by  the  cool  air  passing  over  the  surface  of  the  shade, 
and  stands  in  drops  upon  the  inside,  and  therefore,  the  plants  do  not  require 
as  frequent  watering.  If  the  frames  or  stretchers  are  made  large,  they  should 
be  intersected  by  cross-bars  about  a foot  square  to  support  the  cloth.  These 
articles  are  just  the  thing  for  bringing  forward  melons,  tomatoes,  flower-seeds, 
etc.,  in  season  for  transplanting.” 


HORTICULTURAL  PROCESSES. 


51 


Y. 

HORTICULTURAL  PROCESSES. 


Every  operation  in  gardening  depends  for  its  complete  and  universal  success  upon  a knowl* 
®dge  of  the  structure  of  plants,  the  nature  of  soils  and  manures,  and  the  laws  of  vegetable 
life  and  growth. — M.  Le  Jardinier. 


I.— STIRRING-  THE  SOIL. 


HE  attentive  reader  of  the  foregoing  chap 
ters  will  not  require  to  be  told  that  a thor 
ough  stirring  and  pulverizing  of  the  soil,  as 
one  of  the  first  operations  in  gardening,  is 
absolutely  essential  to  any  high  degree  of 
success  in  the  steps  which  follow.  His 
knowledge  of  the  structure  of  roots  and  the  nature 
of  their  food  has  prepared  him  to  appreciate  the  im- 
portance of  the  mechanical  division  of  soils.  He 
knows  that  the  ground  must  be  readily  permeable  by 
the  tender  rootlets,  pervious  to  moisture  and  air,  and 
so  broken  up  that  the  water,  acids,  and  alkalies  penetrating  it 
may  efficiently  act  upon  its  soluble  parts. 

Spading  is  the  most  effectual  method  of  stirring  the  soil, 
but,  where  the  plow  can  be  advantageously  used,  will  hardly 
“ pay”  in  this  country.  In  small  gardens,  and  in  portions  of 
all  gardens,  spading  is  the  only  practicable  operation.  What- 
ever the  means  used,  let  the  work  be  thoroughly  done.  Down- 
ing says:  “If  I had  to  preach  a sermon  on  horticulture,  I 
should  take  this  for  my  text — ‘Stir  the  soil.’  ” 


II.— APPLYING  MANURES. 


As  the  roots  of  plants  usually  penetrate  every  part  of  the 
soil  of  a garden,  manures , as  a general  rule , should  ~be  as  thor • 


52 


The  Garden. 


oughly  mixed  as  possible  with  every  part.  Where  the  ground 
is  to  he  plowed,  they  are  generally  spread  upon  the  surface, 
and  turned  in  by  that  process.  In  special  cases,  as  will  be 
seen  further  on,  manuring  in  the  hill  or  drill  is  advisable. 
Manures  are  also  sometimes  applied  as  top-dressings — that  is, 
are  spread  upon  the  surface  and  not  dug  in.  Vegetable  and 
animal  manures  for  common  garden  use  should  be  thoroughly 
rotted  and  finely  pulverized. 

III.— FORCING. 

Every  garden  should  have  one  or  more  hot-beds  for  for- 
warding early  tomatoes,  cucumbers,  cabbages,  radishes,  let- 
tuce, etc.  We  have  described  the  hot-bed  frame  in  Chapter 
IV.  The  bed  itself  should  be  composed  of  stable  manure  and 
leaves,  and  must  be  not  less  than  three  feet  deep.  The  manure 
should  be  first  thrown  in  a heap  to  ferment,  and  worked  over 
several  times,  adding  water  if  it  should  become  dry  or  musty. 
Sometimes  the  bed  is  made  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  at 
others  an  excavation  ten  or  twelve  inches  deep  is  made,  in  order 
to  give  the  bed  a less  inconvenient  elevation  above  the  general 
surface.  The  manure  and  leaves  should  be  spread  evenly  in 
layers,  -and  pressed  down.  The  bed  should  be  at  least  six 
inches  larger  every  way  than  the  frame  which  is  to  cover  it, 
and  slope  slightly  toward  the  south.  When  neatly  finished, 
put  on  the  frame,  close  the  sash,  and  keep  all  tight  till  the  heat 
rises  and  steam  appears  on  the  glass.  So  soon  as  the  heat 
rises,  give  the  bed  air  at  noon,  or  the  warmest  part  of  the  day, 
but  keep  it  carefully  closed  the  rest  of  the  time.  In  three  or 
four  days  you  may  cover  the  surface  with  from  four  to  six 
inches  of  fine,  rich  garden  mold,  and  so  soon  as  this  is  warmed 
through,  the  bed  is  ready  for  use.  The  seed  may  be  sowed  in 
drills,  but,  for  facility  of  transplanting  and  to  secure  an  un- 
checked growth,  it  is  better  to  sow  them  in  small  pots,  which 
are  to  be  plunged  in  the  mold.  Sprinkle  gently  with  water  of 
the  same  temperature  as  the  bed.  When  the  plants  appeal' 
they  should  have  the  air  every  day  in  which  the  weather  will 


Horticultural  Processes.  53 


permit.  Open  the  bed  also  to  warm,  gentle  rains,  but  keep  it 
carefully  closed  against  cold  or  heavy  storms.  At  night  keep 
it  well  covered  with  matting  or  straw.  Transplant  as  soon  as 
danger  from  frost  will  permit. 

In  the  South  this  forcing  process  may  he  commenced  early 
in  the  winter,  but  at  the  North  not  till  February  or  March, 
according  to  the  latitude  and  the  season. 

IV. — SOWING  SEEDS. 

The  first  thing  to  he  attended  to  in  seed-sowing  is  the  prep- 
aration of  the  bed  by  thoroughly  pulverizing  the  soil ; and  the 
smaller  the  seeds  the  more  finely  should  the  earth  be  pulver- 
ized. The  soil  should  he  freshly  stirred  and  moist,  hut  not  too 
wet.  The  depth  at  which  seeds  should  he  buried  varies  with 
species  and  with  the  state  of  the  soil.  The  objects  are  to  ex- 
clude the  light  and  secure  sufficient  moisture  for  the  purposes 
of  gerininatfon.  The  latter  object  requires  large  seeds,  other 
things  being  equal,  to  he  covered  more  deeply  than  small  ones. 
If  seeds  are  covered  too  deeply,  unnecessary  impediments  are 
thrown  in  the  way  of  the  ascending  shoots ; and  germination 
may  he  prevented  altogether  by  the  exclusion  of  the  air. 
Most  garden  seeds  are  sown  in  drills.  The  earth  should  be 
pressed  upon  them  with  more  or  less  force,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  in  order  to  secure  the  necessary  degree  of 
compactness  to  retain  the  moisture  and  to  support  the  plant 
after  germination.  Specific  directions,  where  they  are  required, 
will  be  given  under  the  name  of  each  plant. 

V. — TRANSPLANTING. 

In  transplanting,  the  principal  points  to  be  attended  to  are — 
care  in  taking  up,  to  avoid  injuring  the  tender  extremities  of 
the  roots,  through  which,  as  we  have  seen,  the  plant  receives 
its  nourishment ; planting  firmly,  to  give  it  a secure  hold  of 
the  soil;  shading,  when  necessary,  to  prevent  the  evaporation 
from  its  leaves  being  greater  than  the  plant,  in  its  enfeebled 
state,  can  support ; and  watering,  that  it  may  not  lack  moist 


54 


The  Garden. 


ure.  Moist  weather  should  also,  if  possible,  he  chosen  for 
performing  the  operation. 

As  a general  rule,  in  transplanting,  the  collar  of  the  root 
should  not  he  buried.  Cabbages,  balsams,  and  some  other 
annuals,  which  throw  out  roots  above  the  collar,  furnish  ex- 
ceptions ; also  pears  on  quince  stocks,  which  must  be  set  so  as 
to  bring  the  place  where  the  scion  is  inserted  below  the  surface 
of  the  soil. 

The  operation  of  transplanting  herbaceous  plants  should 
always  be  performed  with  & trowel,  removing  a little  ball  of 
earth  with  the  plant.  A damp,  cloudy  day,  an  evening,  or 
just  before  a shower,  is  a favorable  time. 

Tap-rooted  plants  are  transplanted  with  great  difficulty,  and, 
if  the  operation  be  attempted,  should  be  taken  up  with  a con- 
siderable ball  of  earth. 

In  transplanting  trees  much  depends  upon  the  knowledge 
and  skill  exercised.  Thousands  of  fine  trees  are  lost  every 
year  through  the  ignorance  and  carelessness  of  transplanters. 

In  taking  up  a tree  or  shrub  for  transplanting,  be  careful  to 
injure  the  roots  as  little  as  possible.  But  in  all  cases  the  roots 
will  be  maimed  more  or  less.  The  feeding  power  of  the  tree 
is  to  the  same  extent  decreased,  and  it  will  not  be  able  to  sus- 
tain the  draft  made  upon  it  by  the  stem  and  leaves.  These 
must  be  diminished  correspondingly  by  heading  back  or  short- 
ening. In  preparing  a place  for  the  reception  of  the  tree,  avoid, 
if  possible,  the  sites  of  old  trees.  Dig  a hole  considerably 
larger  than  the  clump  of  the  tree’s  roots,  and  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  inches  deep,  placing  the  sods,  if  in  sward  land,  in  one 
heap,  the  soil  in  another,  and  the  subsoil  in  a third.  The  hole 
should  be  filled  with  a mixture  of  the  soil,  subsoil,  and  rich, 
black  loam,  or  well-rotted  compost  manure,  to  the  height 
where  it  is  proper  to  place  the  tree.  With  the  hand  or  spade, 
shape  the  soil  for  the  roots  into  the  form  of  a little  cone,  or. 
which  to  set  the  hollow  in  the  center  of  the  clump  of  roots. 
If  this  is  done  some  weeks,  or  even  months,  before  setting  the 
tree,  it  will  be  all  the  better. 


Horticultural  Processes.  55 


If  the  ground  be  dry,  or  if  the  roots  have  been  much  exposed 
to  the  air  since  the  tree  was  taken  up,  soak  the  roots  and  the 
lower  part  of  the  trunk  in  water  twelve  or  twenty-fcur  hours. 
Out  off  all  bruised  and  broken  ends  of  roots  smoothly  with  a 
knife,  and  shorten-in  the  longest,  so  that  the  clump  of  roots 
may  have  a somewhat  circular  form.  In  cutting  a root,  always 
enter  the  knife  upon  the  under  side,  and  bring  it  out,  with  a 
slope,  to  the  upper  side,  so  that  the  fibers  which  may  shoot  out 
from  the  edges  of  the  cut  shall  strike  downward  into  the 
ground,  instead  of  upward,  as  they  would  were  the  cut  made 
as  it  commonly  is. 

With  good,  rich  soil  fill  up  under,  among,  around,  and  above 
the  roots,  straightening  them  out  with  the  fingers,  and  placing 
them  in  a fan-like  and  natural  position,  being  very  cautious  not 
to  leave  any,  even  small,  hollow  places  among  them.  If  the 
root  is  one-sided,  make  the  most  you  can  of  the  weaker  part. 
At  this  stage  of  the  work,  if  you  have  patience,  it  is  an  ex- 
cellent plan  to  make  a circular  dam  around  the  edge  of 
the  hole,  and  keep  it  full  of  water  for  a half  hour  or  more. 
In  setting  evergreens,  this,  by  some,  is  deemed  almost  indis- 
pensable, unless  the  ground  is  quite  moist.  Next,  put  in  a little 
more  earth,  pressing  it  around  the  tree  with  the  foot.  After 
this,  throw  on  an  inch  or  so  of  loose  earth,  and  the  work  is 
done. 

Another  mode  of  filling  up  around  the  trees,  called  mudding- 
in , has  proved  very  successful.  Make  the  circular  dam  around 
the  tree  first,  or  as  soon  as  it  is  needed,  then  let  one  person 
slowly  sift  the  soil  into  the  hole  upon  the  roots,  while  another 
constantly  pours  in  water,  thus  keeping  the  earth  in  a thin, 
muddy  state. 

Very  large  trees  are  most  successfully  transplanted  by  re- 
moving them  with  large  balls  of  frozen  earth  in  mid-winter, 
and  placing  them  at  once  in  a hole  previously  prepared  to 
receive  them.* 


* See  Appendix,  C. 


66 


The  Garden. 


The  fundamental  principle  to  be  generally  observed  in  trans- 
planting is  to  head  back  the  top  of  the  tree  in  proportion  to 
the  loss  of  root  that  it  has  sustained  by  being  removed. 

Some  fruit-trees  may  be  moved  much  more  easily  than 
others.  Downing  arranges  them  with  reference  to  this  point 
in  the  following  order : Plums,  quinces,  apples,  pears,  peaches, 
nectarines,  apricots,  and,  last  and  most  difficult,  cherries.  It 
is  an  invariable  rule,  that  the  larger  the  tree  the  less  the  chances 
of  success.  In  the  northern  parts  of  the  United  States  small 
trees  should  always  be  set  in  the  spring. 

Medium-sized  trees — say  five  to  ten  feet  high — may  be  set 
equally  well  either  in  the  autumn  or  spring.  Trees  of  large 
size  should  be  moved  late  in  autumn,  in  the  winter,  or  quite 
early  in  the  spring. 

The  evergreen  tribe  are,  however,  best  planted  out  just  as 
their  buds  begin  to  swell  in  the  spring;  but  they  are  some- 
times successfully  set  in  autumn,  and  also  durihg  the  last  of 
May  and  first  of  June.  If  their  roots  are  exposed  to  dry, 
out  of  the  ground,  they  are  almost  certain  to  die. 

VI.— WATERING. 

Watering,  like  every  other  operation  in  gardening,  has  its 
rules,  founded  on  the  general  principles  laid  down  in  our  first 
and  second  chapters.  The  most  important  points  to  be  remem- 
bered are : 1.  That  on  the  nature  of  the  plant,  the  stage  of 
its  growth,  and  the  dryness  or  dampness  of  the  atmosphere 
depends  the  quantity  of  water  required;  2.  That  the  soil 
should  never  be  saturated  with  water,  too  much  moisture 
proving  injurious  as  well  as  too  little;  3.  That  the  watei 
should  not  be  applied  at  the  base  of  the  stem,  as  it  is  through 
the  extremities  of  the  rootlets  mainly  that  it  must  be  taken  up, 
and  these,  except  in  tap-rooted  plants,  are  at  a greater  or  less, 
distance  from  the  original  starting-point ; 4.  That  in  summer, 
the  proper  time  for  watering  plants  is  evening,  but  that  in 
colder  weather  it  is  better  to  water  them  at  mid-day ; 5.  That 
rain  water  is  better  than  well  or  spring  water,  and  that  when 


Horticultural  Processes. 


57 


the  latter  is  used  it  should  he  exposed  to  the  air  for  some  time 
before  applying  it ; 6.  That  the  water  should  never  be  colder 
than  the  plants  to  be  watered. 

VII.— HOEING. 

The  necessity  for  stirring  the  soil  before  planting  has  been 
already  shown.  As  soon  as  the  plants  are  well  above  ground 
it  should  be  stirred  again.  In  field  culture,  and  to  some  extent 
in  large  gardens,  this  is  done  with  the  plow  and  cultivator. 
Where  these  can  not  go,  the  hoe  must  be  faithfully  applied. 
The  soil  can  not  be  stirred  too  often . 

One  object  in  hoeing  is  the  destruction  of  weeds.  This 
should  be  thorough — the  extermination  should  be  complete. 
Spare  not  even  the  smallest.  But  keeping  the  weeds  down  is 
not  the  only  good  result  attained  by  hoeing.  The  soil  is 
thereby  kept  friable  and  porous,  opened  to  the  atmosphere  and 
the  fertilizing  gases,  and  new,  fresh,  and  cool  surface  is  pre- 
sented for  the  absorption  of  moisture.  Hoe  deeply.  A mere 
scratching  of  the  surface  is  not  enough  ; and  do  not  fail  to  hill 
every  weed. 

One  year’s  seeding  makes  seven  years’  weeding. 

VIII. — PROTECTION  FROM  FROST. 

Straw  and  leaves  laid  several  inches  deep  about  their  roots 
are  very  useful  in  protecting  half-hardy  plants  during  the  win- 
ter. Garden-pots,  empty  boxes,  barrels,  hand-glasses,  and  cold 
frames  should  be  brought  into  requisition  in  particular  cases, 
for  the  protection  of  early  plants  from  spring  frosts,  and  later 
ones  from  those  of  the  autumn.  Common  tumblers  may  be 
used  for  very  small  plants,  but  they  must  be  raised  whenever 
moisture  accumulates. 

Fruit-trees  in  blossom,  or  covered  with  young  fruit  just 
formed,  may  be  protected  by  keeping  up  smoldering,  smoking 
fires  during  the  night  in  various  parts  of  the  garden,  at  the 
windward  side.  But  little  fire  is  required,  the  clouds  of  smoke 
effectually  warding  off  the  frost.  The  amount  of  fruit  which 

3* 


58 


The  Garden. 


might  often  be  thus  saved  would  repay  a hundied-fold  the 
labor  and  care  bestowed  in  this  way. 

IX.— MULCHING. 

Mulching  is  placing  mulch  or  moist  litter  of  various  kinds 
upon  the  surface  of  the  soil  over  the  roots  of  trees,  shrubs,  and 
herbaceous  plants.  Its  uses  are  the  retention  of  moisture,  the 
prevention  of  injury  by  frost,  and  the  promotion  of  an  equable 
temperature.  Strawberries  thinly  mulched,  the  crown  being 
uncovered,  are  rendered  more  productive  and  continue  longer 
in  bearing,  especially  in  hot,  dry  climates.  Newly  planted 
fruit-trees  are  often  greatly  benefited  by  mulching. 

X. — DESTROYING  INSECTS. 

The  foes  against  which  the  gardener  is  forced  to  wage  a per- 
petual war  of  extermination,  though  individually  insignificant, 
are  in  the  aggregate  most  formidable.  We  will  try  to  give  a 
few  useful  hints  of  a general  character  to  aid  the  reader  in  this 
warfare. 

Sowing  a garden  with  salt,  at  the  rate  of  six  or  eight  bushels 
to  the  acre,  will  cause  many  insects  to  disappear.  It  should 
be  done  in  the  autumn.  Digging  the  soil  in  the  winter,  and 
thus  exposing  it  to  the  frost,  will  destroy  many  grubs,  etc. 
Wide-mouthed  bottles,  partly  filled  with  molasses  and  water, 
and  hung  up  in  a garden,  make  excellent  traps  for  the  moths, 
which  are  the  parents  of  many  destructive  vermin.  Mr. 
Downing  mentions  an  acquaintance  who  thus  caught  and  de- 
stroyed in  a single  season  three  bushels  of  insects,  and  preserved 
his  garden  almost  free  from  them.  A bright  fire  of  resinous 
pine,  tar,  shavings,  or  any  other  combustible,  kindled  in  the 
garden  at  night,  on  a platform  erected  for  the  purpose,  will 
attract  and  destroy  millions.  Birds  are  among  the  best  friends 
of  the  gardener,  and  should  by  no  means  be  destroyed, 
although  some  of  them  may  eat  a few  raspberries  or  cherries. 
Toads  live  almost  entirely  upon  insects,  and  do  no  harm  in  a 
garden.  Induce  as  many  of  them  as  possible  to  make  it  their 


II OETICULTURAL  PROCESSES.  59 


home.  Hens  and  chickens  should  have  access  whenever  it 
can  safely  he  permitted. 

To  drive  insects  away  from  plants  various  preparations  are 
useful.  A writer  in  the  Southern  Cultivator  recommends  the 
following: 

“Put  into  a barrel  of  water  a quarter  of  a pound  of  cam- 
phor, in  pieces  of  the  size  of  a hickory  nut,  and  let  it  stand  a 
day  before  using.  Water  your  plants  with  this.  The  barrel 
may  be  refilled  many  times  before  the  camphor  will  have  all 
been  dissolved.  A cupful  of  strong  lye  put  into  the  watei 
will  add  to  the  strength  of  the  mixture  by  causing  the  water 
to  take  up  more  camphor.  Camphor  is  very  offensive  to  most 
insects.”  Tobacco-water  is  another  efficient  remedy.  Lime, 
charcoal-dust,  ashes,  soot,  snuff,  and  sulphur  sprinkled  upon 
plants  prove  a defense  against  most  destroyers.  To  expel  the 
striped  bug  from  cucumbers,  squashes,  etc.,  water  the  plants 
daily  with  a strong  decoction  of  quassia,  made  by  pouring  four 
gallons  of  boiling  water  on  four  pounds  of  quassia,  in  a barrel, 
and,  after  twelve  hours,  filling  the  barrel  with  water.  The 
intolerable  squash  or  pumpkin  bug  may  be  thoroughly  driven 
off  by  a decoction  of  double  strength,  containing  a pound  of 
glue  to  ten  gallons,  to  make  it  adhere. 

The  most  effectual  and  the  cheapest  remedy  for  the  striped 
bug,  however,  consists  in  defending  each  hill  of  melons,  cu- 
cumbers, squashes,  etc.,  by  a box  about  fifteen  inches  square, 
the  sides  being  eight  to  ten  inches  high,  covered  with  millinet 
or  some  similar  thin  material. 

The  following  recipe  for  making  a “barrier  to  insects”  is 
given  in  the  Gardener's  Chronicle.  It  may  be  easily  tried : 

“Take  of  common  resin  I2  lbs. ; sweet  oil,  1 lb. ; place  them 
in  a pipkin  over  the  fire  until  the  resin  is  melted ; stir  the  mate- 
rials together,  that  they  may  be  well  blended ; when  cold  the 
substance  formed,  which  the  discoverer  calls  ‘rezoil,’  will  be 
of  the  consistency  of  molasses.  To  use  the  rezoil  it  should  be 
spread  with  a brush  upon  shreds  or  any  fitting  material,  and 
wrapped  round  the  stem  of  the  plant ; if  any  support  is  used, 


60 


The  Garden. 


that  should  he  brushed  over  also.  ISTo  insect  can  possibly,  or 
will  attempt  to  cross  this  barrier ; the  rezoil  never  dries,  hut 
always  remains  sticky  and  clammy — its  action  as  a trap  is 
therefore  obvious.” 

But,  however  numerous  and  effective  the  other  remedies, 
“ eternal  vigilance”  can  not  he  dispensed  with  in  dealing  with 
the  pests  of  the  garden. 

XI.— SAYING  SEEDS. 

Choose  the  best  plants  for  seed — the  most  true  to  their  Tcind 
and  the  most  perfectly  developed ; allow  the  seeds  to  become 
perfectly  ripe  before  gathering  them;  gather  when  dry,  and 
especially  take  care  that  they  are  perfectly  dry  when  put  up ; 
store  them  in  paper  bags  carefully  labeled,  and  keep  them  in  a 
dry,  cool  place.  Great  care  is  necessary  in  raising  seeds  to 
preserve  the  sorts  unmixed,  as  varieties  of  the  same  species 
or  similar  species  are  almost  sure  to  mix  if  planted  near  each 
other.  If  you  raise  more  than  one  kind  of  corn,  or  pumpkin, 
or  cucumber,  or  melon  in  the  same  garden,  you  can  not  be 
sure  of  pure  seed.  The  squashes  and  pumpkins  may  mix,  or 
the  melons  with  either,  the  pollen  of  one  being  conveyed  by 
the  wind,  or  sometimes  by  bees  or  other  insects,  to  the  pistil 
of  the  other. 

XII.— ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

Why  rotation  of  crops  is  beneficial  has  been  already  shown, 
and  if  the  reader  has  forgotten,  let  him  turn  back  to  the  first 
chapter.  The  following  is  a good  rotation  for  a given  portion 
of  a garden : 

First  year,  cabbages. 

Second  “ onions. 

Third  “ carrots,  beets,  or  parsneps. 

Fourth  “ potatoes  or  turnips. 

Fifth  “ celery,  spinach,  or  lettuce. 

Celery  is  excellent  to  precede  asparagus,  onions,  cauliflowers, 


Horticultural  Processes.  61 


or  turnips ; old  asparagus  beds  are  good  for  carrots,  potatoes, 
etc. ; strawberry  and  raspberry  beds  do  well  for  the  cabbage 
tribe,  and  the  cabbage  tribe  may  be  followed  by  tbe  tap-rooted 
plants — carrots,  beets,  ete. 

A large  portion  of  every  garden,  even  at  the  N orth,  should 
be  made  to  produce  two  crops  each  season.  All  the  space  occu- 
pied by  early  peas,  beans,  and  potatoes  can  be  made  available 
for  turnips  and  cabbages.  Turnips  (English  or  Dutch)  may  also 
be  sown  broadcast  among  the  corn  and  later  potatoes  after  the 
last  hoeing. 

XIII.— PROPAGATION. 

There  are,  properly  speaking,  but  two  modes  of  propagating 
plants — by  seeds  and  by  division.  By  the  first  the  species  is 
perpetuated,  and  new  varieties  raised.  The  second  mode  mul- 
tiplies specimens  of  the  individual  itself,  with  all  its  peculiari- 
ties, which  may  be  and  generally  are  lost  in  the  seed. 

There  are  several  distinct  modes  of  propagating  plants  by 
division,  all,  however,  depending  for  their  success  upon  the 
presence  of  leaf  buds,  each  of  which,  as  we  have  seen,  being 
capable,  under  favorable  circumstances,  of  forming  a distinct 
and  independent  individual. 

1.  Suckers . — Some  plants,  such  as  the  rose,  the  raspberry, 
the  lilac,  etc.,  throw  up  suckers  or  sprouts  from  their  roots. 
These  spring  from  what  have  been  described  as  adventitious 
buds.  We  have  only  to  divide  these  from  their  parent  and 
transplant  them  in  a suitable  soil  to  secure  their  independent 
growth.  Offsets  and  runners  are  of  a similar  nature  to  the 
suckers  of  the  woody  plants.  The  former  are  young  bulbs 
which  form  by  the  side  of  the  old  one,  and  merely  require 
breaking  off  and  planting.  The  latter  are  shoots  springing  from 
the  collar  or  crown  of  a plant,  and  throwing  out  roots  at  their 
joints.  These  have  only  to  be  separated  from  the  parent  plant 
to  become  independent  individuals.  The  strawberry  is  the 
most  noted  example  of  this  mode  of  propagation. 

2.  Layers. — The  tendency  manifested  by  many  plants  to 
throw  out  roots  from  their  joints  early  suggested  to  gardeners 


62 


The  Garden. 


the  idea  of  making  layers.  A twig  growing  out  of  a tree,  at  a 
point  not  far  from  the  ground,  is  bent  down,  and  the  middle 
portion  of  it  buried  just  under  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  fast- 
ened there  by  means  of  a hooked  peg,  or  by  a stone  or  turf 
placed  above  it.  Success  is  rendered  more  certain  by  checking 
the  downward  flow  of  the  sap.  This  may  be  accomplished  by 
cutting  a slice  off  the  under  side  of  the  part  of  the  twig  that  is 
placed  under  ground,  or,  more  perfectly,  by  entering  the  knife 
on  the  under  side  at  this  point,  and  splitting  the  twig  upward 
about  one  or  two  inches,  fastening  the  split  open  with  a little 
wedge  or  pebble.  The  sap  accumulating  at  this  point  induces 
the  throwing  out  of  roots,  and  the  conversion  of  the  shoot  into 
a new  plant.  Trees  or  shrubs  purposely  headed  down  for 
raising  layers  are  called  stools.  A single  quince-bush,  thus 
m-ade  into  a stool , and  its  twigs  layered,  is  capable  of  producing 
many  finely-rooted  plants  in  a single  season.  Of  some  kinds 
of  layers  nearly  every  bud  will  form  roots  of  its  own. 

3.  Guttings. — Cuttings  are  shoots  removed  from  the  parent 
tree  or  plant  without  roots.  The  branches  nearest  the  ground 
are  considered  best  for  outtings,  as  the  tendency  to  throw  out 
roots  is  greater  in  them  than  in  those  more  elevated.  They 
should  be  cut  off  just  below  a joint.  Some  species,  however, 
as  the  willow,  the  currant,  etc.,  will  throw  out  roots  from  any 
part  of  the  stem,  and  generally  succeed  with  even  the  most 
careless  planting.  The  best  time  to  take  off  cuttings  is  in  ."No- 
vember, but  in  a cold  climate  they  are  more  likely  to  succeed 
if  kept  in  damp  mold  in  a cellar,  and  hot  planted  till  spring. 
In  planting,  bury  them  to  the  second  joint,  leaving  one  or  two 
joints  above  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Press  the  earth  com- 
pactly about  the  lower  end.  Cuttings  of  delicate  plants  are 
generally  spruck  (rooted)  in  pots,  and  sometimes  it  is  necessary 
to  cover  them  with  a bell-glass,  to  prevent  too  rapid  evaporation. 

4.  Slips. — Slips  are  cuttings  made  from  the  root  or  collar  of 
a plant,  or  branches  stripped  off,  with  a small  portion  of  the 
root  or  stem  attached.  They  are  treated  like  other  cuttings* 
Many  kinds  of  fruit-trees  may  be  readily  propagated  by  slips. 


Horticultural  Processes.  63 


5„  Budding . — Budding  consists  in  introducing  the  bud  of  one 
tree  or  slirub,  with  a portion  of  the  bark  and  wood  adhering 
to  it,  below  the  bark  of  another  tree  or  shrub.  The  operation 
is  thus  performed : With  a sharp  budding-knife,  upon  a smooth 
place  on  the  side  of  the  stock,  cut  a longitudinal  slit  an  inch  or 
more  long.  Across  the  top  of  this  cut  a transverse  slit  from  a 
quarter  to  half  an  inch  long,  so  that  both  slits,  taken  together, 
shall  resemble  the  letter  T.  Next,  cut  from  your  stick  of  buds 
a thin  slice  of  bark,  with  a little  wood  in  the  central  portion 
of  it,  entering  the  knife  about  half  or  three  fourths  of  an  inch 
below,  and  bringing  it  out  about  as  far  above  a bud.  This 
slice  of  bark  and  wood,  taken  together,  is  called  a bud,  the  part 
of  the  bud  which  grows  into  a twig  being  technically  called 
its  eye. 

With  the  ivory  haft  of  your  budding-knife,  or,  if  you  have 
not  such  a knife,  with  any  little  wedge  of  wood  or  ivory,  raise 
up  the  corners  of  the  slit  in  the  stock.  Taking  hold  of  the 
bud  by  its  foot-stalk,  enter  it,  and  gently  push  it  down  to  the 
bottom  of  the  incision.  The  eye  of  the  bud  will 
now  be  from  one  fourth  to  three  fourths  of  an  inch 
from  the  transverse  part  of  the  slit.  The  part  of  the 
bud,  if  any,  projecting  ajbove  this  transverse  slit, 
should  be  cut  off,  by  passing  the  knife  through  it,  into 
the  transverse  slit  again,  so  that  the  upper  end  of  the 
bud  and  this  transverse  part  of  the  slit  shall  make  a 
good  joint  together.  Bind  the  bud  firmly  with  shreds 
of  bass-matting,  so  as  to  cover  every  part  of  it  except 
the  eye.  Woolen  yarn  or  corn  husks  will  answer 
when  no  matting  is  at  hand.  The  stock  (trunk  or 
branch)  should  be  from  an  eighth  of  an  inch  to  not 
more  than  an  inch  in  diameter. 

To  prepare  a stick  of  buds  for  budding,  take  a scion 
of  the  present  season’s  growth,  and  cut  off  the  por- 
tions of  each  end  of  it  containing  buds  that  are  im- 
perfectly developed.  Next,  cut  off  the  leaves  at  a 
point  about  in  the  middle  of  their  stems  or  footstalks.  The 


STICK  OP 
BUDS. 


64:  Tee  Garden. 

buds  which  are  to  be  used  lie  in  the  angle  on  the  upper  side 
of  these  stems. 

Budding  is  generally  performed  in  the  summer  or  early  part 
of  autumn.  It  is  essential  to  success — 1st.  That  the  hark  of 
the  stock  should  part  freely  from  the  wood , and  2d.  That  the 
hud  which  is  to  he  inserted  should  he  well  ripened , otherwise  it 
will  not  have  vital  energy  sufficient  to  establish  itself  in  its 
new  location.  Whenever  these  conditions  can  be  secured, 
budding  may  be  successfully  performed.  The  buds  put  in 
early,  however,  especially  in  the  South,  make  a considerable 
growth  the  same  season.  Buds  should  be  inserted  on  the 
north  side  of  the  stock,  if  practicable.  The  operation  is  one 
of  some  nicety,  and  to  be  successful  must  be  performed  rapidly , 
and  with  fresh , healthy  huds , smooth  cuts , and  cleanly  rising 
hark.  A few  days  after  budding,  the  stock  should  be  cut  off 
within  ten  or  twelve  inches  of  the  bud,  and  when  this  haa 
grown  three  or  four  inches,  the  stock  may  be  cut  off  again 
near  the  budded  shoot.  All  sprouts,  or  “robbers,”  as  they  are 
called,  that  appear  on  the  stock  must  be  carefully  removed. 

Care  should  also  be  taken  not  to  allow  branches 
from  the  main  shoot  of  the  bud  to  grow,  and  to 
secure  an  upright  position  of  it,  a ligature  of  the 
matting  may  be  passed  around  the  sprout  and  the 
upper  end  of  the  old  stock. 

In  spring  budding,  some  gardeners  recommend 
to  make  the  incisions  in  the  form  of  an  inverted 
_L,  but  we  see  no  good  reason  for  this  inversion, 
and  believe  that  the  other  mode  is  equally  sue 
cessful. 

Annular  budding  is  applied  with  success  to  trees 
Jgj  of  hard  wood  and  thick  bark,  or  those  which,  like 
i/™  ' the  walnut,  have  buds  so  large  as  to  render  the 

common  mode  of  budding  difficult  and  uncertain. 

M A ring  of  bark  is  taken  from  the  stock,  and  one  of 
equal  size,  containing  a bud,  from  the  scion.  If 
TE™rP  the  stock  be  larger  than  the  scion,  an  entire  ring 


Horticultural  Processes.  65 

wifi  not  be  taken  off,  but  only  what  may  be  filled  by  tbe  ring 
of  bark  from  tbe  scion.  If  the  ring  of  bark  from  the  scion  be 
too  large  for  the  stock,  it  will  be  reduced  so  as  to  just  inclose 
the  stock.  When  thus  fitted,  tie  with  matting,  and  cover  the 
wound  with  clay  or  grafting- wax,  and  the  work  is  done. 

6.  Grafting . — In  grafting,  a shoot  with  two  or  more  buds  on 
it,  instead  of  a single  bud,  is  transferred  from  one  tree  or  shrub 
to  another.  The  operation,  in  all  its  forms,  consists  essentially 
in  bringing  in  contact  portions  of  growing  shoots,  so  that  the 
liber  or  inner  bark  of  the  two  may  unite  and  grow  together. 
The  same  general  principles  apply  to  it  as  to  budding. 

The  shoot  to  be  transferred  is  called  a scion.  The  best  time 
to  cut  scions  is  from  the  middle  of  January  to  the  last  of  Feb- 
ruary, although  they  may  be  taken  from  the  trees  at  any  time 
from  late  autumn  until  spring.  In  order  to  keep  them  until 
they  may  be  used,  nothing  more  is  necessary  than  to  thrust 
their  lower  ends  into  the  ground,  in  a shady  place — say  close 
on  the  north  side  of  the  trunk  of  the  tree  from  which  they 
were  cut ; or  a better  way  is  to  set  them  half  their  length  deep 
in  a box  of  fine  soil  in  a cellar. 

In  cutting  scions,  take  from  the  extremity  of  the  limb  of  a 
tree  that  part  of  it  which  grew  the  preceding  season, 
and  keep  the  shoot  or  twig  entire  till  wanted  for  use. 

Scions  are  united  to  their  stocks  in  several  ways. 

Whatever  may  be  the  mode  of  operating,  however, 
the  principle  is  always  the  same — namely,  the  sap- 
vessels  of  the  graft  and  the  stock  must  be  so  adapted 
to  each  other  that  the  sap  can  flow  uninterruptedly 
from  the  one  to  the  other. 

Cleft  grafting  is  the  mode  in  most  common  use. 

Stocks  from  half  an  inch  to  two  inches  in  diameter 
are  usually  worked  over  in  this  way.  The  whole 
large  tree  may  thus  be  headed  back  and  grafted, 
become  even  more  valuable  than  one  that  was  grafted  in  the 
nursery. 

The  operation  is  performed  as  follows:  Saw  off  the  stock 


CLEFT 

GBAFTING 


top  of  a 
so  as  to 


66 


The  Garden. 


crosswise,  then  pare  the  end  smoothly  with  a knife.  Next, 
split  it  down  about  two  inches  with  a thin,  sharp  knife,  driven 
with  a hammer.  A narrow  wedge  is  now  driven  into  the 
middle  of  the  cleft,  so  as  to  keep  the  top  of  it  open  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch.  Cut  the  scion  (which  should  not  contain 
more  than  three  or  four  buds)  at  the  lower  end,  in  the  form  of 
a wedge,  about  one  and  a half  inches  long,  contriving  to  have 
a bud  or  eye  at  the  top  of  the  part  so  formed,  to  insure  greater 
success.  The  scion  is  next  to  be  inserted  on  one  side  of  the 
stock,  and  fitted  nicely  into  the  cleft,  so  that  the  inner  bark  of 
the  outer  side  of  the  scion  shall  exactly  meet  that  of  the  stock. 
On  large  stocks  two  scions  are  thus  inserted,  one  on  each  side. 

The  scions  being  adjusted,  carefully  withdraw  the  wedge 
which  stands  erect  between  the  scions.  Make  a ball  of  wax, 
and  lay  it  on  the  head  of  the  stock,  between  the  scions,  and 
press  it  down,  and  spread  it  so  as  to  cover  the  head,  and  lap 
over  three  fourths  of  an  inch  all  around  upon  the  bark,  and  rub 
it  down  smoothly,  being  careful  to  make  an  air  and  water-joint 
around  the  scions  and  over  the  end  of  the  stock.  Where  the 
wax  passes  over  the  corner  of  the  stock,  it  should  be  quite 
thick,  to  prevent  it  from  cracking.  Then  cover  the  cleft  on 
each  side  quite  below  its  lower  extremity,  and  the  work  is 
done.  The  next  spring  cut  off  nicely  the  poorest  scion  in  each 
stock,  as  one  is  usually  quite  sufficient. 

For  small  seedling  stocks,  or  small  sprouts  on  larger  trees, 
less  than  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  it  is  well  to  adopt  the  whip 
or  splice  method. 

Cut  the  stock  with  a sharp  knife,  obliquely  upward,  without 
bruising  or  starting  the  bark,  and  the  scion  downward,  with  a 
corresponding  angle,  to  make  the  two  parts  fit  nicely,  care 
being  taken  that  the  inner  bark  of  the  stock  and  scion  exactly 
meet.  Then  lay  the  parts  together,  and  bind  them  snugly  with 
a strand  of  matting  or  bass-bark,  and  cover  the  splice  with 
grafting- wax  or  clay,  to  shield  it  from  the  air  and  water. 

Allied  to  splice  grafting  is  what  is  called  saddle  grafting . 
On  stocks  of  half  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter  and  scions  of 


Horticultural  Processes.  67 


the  same  size,  this  mode  is  sometimes  ernpk  yed  with  excellent 
success.  In  this  process,  cut  the  stock  with  a drawing-knife 
upward,  forming  a wedge ; then  split  with  a fine  saw  the  scion, 
and  with  a knife  pare  away  each  side  to  a point,  so  as  to  fit 
the  stock ; place  the  parts  together,  and  bind  them  firmly  with 
matting  or  bark,  and  cover  the  whole  with  clay  or  grafting- 
wax.  At  the  end  of  two  months  the  union  will  generally  be 
sufficiently  perfect  to  allow  the  removal  of  the  covering  and 
the  ligature,  which,  if  left  on  too  long,  will  injure  the  growth. 

In-arch  grafting  is  used  when  others  will  scarcely  succeed. 
The  two  trees  must  stand  close  to  each  other.  A twig  of  each, 
without  being  cut  from  its  tree,  must  be  pared  with  a long, 
corresponding  slanting  cut,  and  the  two  raw  edges  must  be 
fitted  nicely,  and  bound  firmly  together,  and  the  joint  covered 
with  the  composition.  When  the  union  has  taken  place,  the 
trees  are  so  separated  as  to  leave  the  scion  on  the  tree  where 
it  is  wanted. 

A mode  called  root  grafting  is  practiced  extensively  in  nurs- 
eries. The  two-year  seedling  stocks  are  headed  down  to  within 
an  inch  or  so  of  the  collar  or  crown ; they  are  then  split,  and 
the  scion  inserted,  as  in  common  cleft  grafting.  The  scion  is 
held  in  its  place  by  a piece  of  matting  bound  round  the  stock. 
The  stocks  to  be  used  for  this  purpose  are  generally  taken  up 
in  the  fall,  grafted  in  the  winter  at  the  fireside,  and  packed 
away  in  the  cellar  till  spring,  when  they  are  properly  planted ; 
the  point  of  insertion  of  the  graft  being  covered  with  the  soil. 
No  wax  or  clay  is  necessary.  Scions  may  also  be  grafted  on 
small  roots  by  common  splice  grafting.  The  point  of  union 
should  be  covered  with  soil  to  the  depth  of  two  inches. 

Grafting  may  be  performed  at  almost  any  season  of  the  year 
with  scions  properly  kept ; but  by  far  the  best  time  is  from 
the  middle  of  February,  in  mild  weather,  all  along  until  the 
middle  of  May  at  the  North,  and  till  the  end  of  March  at  the 
South — stone-fruits  first,  and  other  fruits  somewhat  later. 

Neither  grafting  nor  budding  can  be  successful,  unless  be- 
tw  een  different  varieties  of  the  same  species,  as  the  apple  upon 


68 


The  Garden. 


a seedling  apple-tree  stock ; or  between  nearly  allied  species 
of  the  same  genus,  as  between  the  apple  and  the  pear,  which 
unions  are  comparatively  imperfect  and  short-lived ; or,  thirdly, 
between  nearly  allied  genera,  as  between  the  cherry  and  the 
plum,  which  maintain  a feeble  existence  for  a limited  period, 
and  then  die.  All  unions,  therefore,  between  widely  different 
genera  and  species,  are  utterly  impossible,  as  the  graft  can  not 
live  upon  the  sap  supplied  by  the  stock,  any  more  than  a lion 
can  be  fed  upon  grass. 

To  produce  dwarf  trees,  Apple  is  grafted  upon  Paradise  (or 
Doucin)  stocks ; the  Pear  upon  the  Quince,  Thorn,  or  Mountain 
Ash;  the  Peach  upon  the  Plum;  the  Plum  upon  Mirabelle 
Plum  seedlings ; the  Cherry  upon  the  Cerasus  Mahaleb,  and, 
in  general,  any  tree  upon  any  other  kindred  tree  of  slower  or 
smaller  growth. 

The  stock  and  the  graft  (scion  or  bud)  exert  influences  upon 
each  other  mutually.  The  stock  often  affects  the  size  and 
flavor  of  the  fruit  borne  by  the  graft.  Of  a graft  or  stock, 
either  may  communicate  its  own  diseases  and  infirmities  to  the 
other.  It  is  pretty  well  established,  also,  that  stocks  bearing 
early  fruits  have  an  influence  in  accelerating  the  ripening  of 
the  fruits  which  may  be  made  to  grow  upon  them  by  grafting. 

Grafting  Wax . — To  make  grafting  wax  of  an  excellent 
quality,  take  four  parts  of  resin,  two  of  beeswax,  and  one  of 
tallow;  melt  the  whole  together,  pour  the  composition  into 
cold  water,  and  work  it  over  thoroughly,  pulling  it  as  you 
would  molasses  candy.  The  hardness  of  the  wax  may  be  in- 
creased or  lessened  by  applying  more  or  less  tallow.  In  cold 
weather  keep  the  composition  in  warm  water,  and  in  warm 
weather  in  cold  water,  to  secure  the  proper  consistency  for  use. 
In  using  it,  the  hands  should  be  slightly  greased. 

XIV.— PRUNING-. 

The  principal  objects  sought  to  be  attained  by  pruning  are 
to  promote  the  growth,  improve  the  form,  and  increase  the 
fruitfulness  of  trees.  Ho  operation  in  horticulture  requires 


Horticultural  Processes.  69 


the  exercise  of  more  knowledge,  judgment,  and  skill,  in  orde^ 
to  the  attainment  of  complete  success ; hut  in  general  no  opera- 
tion is  more  carelessly,  ignorantly,  and  bunglingly  performed, 
or  more  frequently  neglected. 

Pruning  to  promote  the  growth  of  a tree  proceeds  upon  the 
principle  that  the  sap  which  would  have  been  appropriated 
to  the  support  of  the  branches,  or  parts  of  the  top,  taken  off, 
will  go  to  increase  the  vigor  of  the  parts  which  remain.  This 
is  true  within  certain  limits,  hut  the  process  must  not  he  car- 
ried too  far.  Sufficient  top  must  be  left  to  supply  leaves  for 
the  elaboration  of  the  sap . 

Young  trees,  two  or  three  years  from  the  seed,  or  one  year 
from  the  graft,  are  not  infrequently  headed  down  to  two  or 
three  buds,  on  purpose  to  strengthen  their  growth.  A single 
hud  is  then  trained  vertically,  and  the  rest  pruned  away  in  the 
course  of  the  summer.  In  such  cases,  the  growth  of  the  top 
being  attended  with  a corresponding  increase  of  fibrous  roots, 
the  tree  at  once  becomes  vigorous  and  healthy. 

Peach  trees,  in  our  climate,  are  highly  benefited  by  thus 
shortening-in  annually,  in  the  spring,  one  half,  or  thereabouts, 
of  their  entire  growth  of  the  previous  summer,  all  over  the 
heads  of  the  trees. 

Dwarf  pears  on  quince  also  require  a similar  heading-in,  an- 
nually each  spring,  so  long  as  they  continue  to  make  a growth 
of  scions. 

Pruning  to  improve  the  form  is  applied  mostly  to  ornamental 
trees,  to  which  almost  any  desirable  shape  may  he  given  by 
this  means.  If  one  part  of  a tree  should  outgrow  another  part, 
the  former  may  he  shortened-in  in  winter,  and  the  shoots  pinched 
off  the  next  summer,  till  the  sap  is  thrown  in  the  right  direc- 
tion into  the  weaker  branches,  and  the  balance  restored. 
When  you  desire  the  new  shoots  of  a branch  to  take  an  upright 
direction,  prune  to  an  inside  hud ; while,  if  you  wish  an  open, 
spreading  top,  prune  to  an  outside  hud,  etc.  Do  not  trim  the 
stems  or  trunks  of  your  trees  (whether  ornamental  or  fruit- 
trees)  to  hare  poles,  hut  allow  the  branches  to  form  near  the 


70 


The  Garden. 


ground,  as  they  naturally  will  in  open  ground.  Your  orna- 
mental trees  will  thus  be  more  beautiful,  and  your  fruit-trees 
more  likely  to  bear  well. 

Everything  that  is  favorable  to  rapid  and  vigorous  growth  is 
unfavorable  to  immediate  fruitfulness,  hence  pruning  to  induce 
fruitfulness  is  performed  after  vegetation  has  commenced.  This 
checks  the  growth  of  the  wood,  impedes  the  circulation  of  the 
sap,  and  promotes  the  formation  of  fruit.  Top  pruning  or 
shortening-in  is  the  most  common  form  of  pruning  to  induce 
fruitfulness.  Pruning  the  roots  has  a similar  effect.  The  oper- 
ation of  root  pruning  is  thus  performed : 

At  a few  feet  from  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  varying  the  dis- 
tance according  to  its  size,  dig  a circular  ditch  around  it, 
eighteen  or  twenty  inches  deep,  cutting  off  all  the  lateral  roots 
smoothly,  close  to  the  circular  mass  of  earth  in  which  the  tree 
stands,  removing  the  outer  pieces  of  roots  from  the  surrounding 
ground,  as  much  as  can  he  done  conveniently.  Fill  up  the 
trench  with  good,  rich  soil,  and  the  tree  will,  in  this  country, 
generally  he  brought  into  a permanent  fruit-hearing  state. 
Repeating  the  operation  annually,  apples,  pears,  and  other 
fruit-trees  may  he  rendered  productive  dwarfs — even  so  as  to 
he  planted  only  six  or  eight  feet  apart.  And,  if  at  the  same 
time  we  apply  the  shortening -in  process  above  described,  they 
may  he  kept  in  a beautiful  pyramidal  form,  and  rendered  very 
profitable.  This  work  may  be  done  in  autumn,  in  winter,  or 
early  in  the  spring.  1 

Pruning  ought  to  be  performed  with  sharp  tools.  When  the 
saw  is  used,  the  ends  of  the  limbs  should  afterward  be  care- 
fully pared  with  a knife.  They  should  then  be  covered  with 
some  composition  to.  protect  them  from  the  weather.  Down- 
ing’s Gum-Shellac  is  admirably  adapted  to  this  purpose.  This 
preparation  is  made  by  dissolving  a quantity  of  the  gum  in 
alcohol,  so  that  the  composition  shall  be  of  the  consistency  of 
thin  molasses.  The  liquid  should  be  kept  in  a wide-mouthed 
bottle,  the  cork  of  which  should  have  a wire  (running  through 
it  into  the  bottle),  with  a sponge  attached  to  the  end  of  it. 


Horticultural  Processes.  71 


"When  the  object  of  pruning  is  to  promote  the  growth  or 
improve  the  form  of  a tree,  the  operation  is  generally  performed 
in  the  winter  or  early  in  the  spring.  Some,  however,  recom- 
mend pruning  in  May  or  June. 

XV.— TRAINING. 

In  England,  where  fruit-trees  generally  are  trained  on  wall? 
and  trellises,  this  process  requires  much  time  and  labor  on  the 
part  of  the  gardener.  In  this  country  it  is  hardly  applied  at 
all,  except  to  vines  and  pear-trees,  and  to  the  latter  only  occa- 
sionally. The  principal  object  of  training  is  to  produce  from  a 
certain  number  of  branches  a larger  quantity  of  fruit  than 
would  grow  on  them  if  left  in  their  natural  state.  This  is 
effected  by  spreading  and  bending  the  branches  so  as  to  form 
numerous  depositions  of  the  returning  sap,  aided,  where  the 
tree  is  trained  against  a wall,  by  the  shelter  and  reflected  heat 
which  the  latter  affords. 

Directions  for  training  the  grapevine  will  be  given  under  its 
proper  head. 

A new  mode  of  training  fruit-trees,  practiced  in  the  north 
of  Russia,  is  well  deserving  of  trial  in  the  colder  parts  of  Hew 
England,  especially  for  cultivating  the  peach.  A tree,  one  year 
from  the  graft,  is  headed  down  to  two  healthy,  strong  wood- 
buds.  These  are  trained  horizontally,  about  ten  or  twelve 
inches  from  the  ground,  to  a south  wall — perhaps  the  north 
side  of  a wall  might  do  quite  as  well,  in  crur  more  changeable 
climate.  These  arms  are  suffered  to  throw  up  vertical  shoots, 
which  become  covered  with  fruit-spurs.  These  vertical  shoots 
are  kept  shortened-in,  to  a length  of  not  more  than  about 
one  or  two  feet;  and  these,  with  the  two  horizontal  arms 
from  which  they  spring,  and  the  short  trunk  of  about  ten 
to  fourteen  inches  in  length,  constitute  all  there  is  of  the 
tree  above  ground.  The  whole  tree  may  be  covered,  through 
the  winter,  with  two  feet  or  more  of  soil  heaped  over  it, 
with  a deep  bank  of  snow,  or  with  straw,  evergreen  boughs, 
or  the  like. 


72 


The  Garden 


Peaches,  we  are  convinced,  can  be  raised  in  this  way  where 
they  fail  entirely  under  ordinary  treatment.  It  has  hardly 
been  fairly  tried,  however,  in  this  country.* 


* In  preparing  the  condensed  directions  for  transplanting,  budding,  grafting, 
pruning,  training,  etc.,  contained  in  this  chapter,  we  have  been  deeply  in- 
debted to  the  valuable  little  manual  of  George  Jaques,  entitled  “A  Practice. 
Treatise  on  the  Management  of  Fruit-Trees,”  which  we  cordially  recommend- 
See  also  Barry’s  “ Fruit  Garden”  on  these  points. 


The  Kitchen  Garden. 


73 


YI. 

THE  KITCHEN  CARDEN. 

1 consider  the  kitchen  garden  of  very  considerable  importance,  as  pot-herbs,  salads,  and 
roots  of  various  kinds  are  useful  in  housekeeping.  Having  a plenty  of  them  at  hand,  a family 
will  not  be  so  likely  to  run  into  the  error  which  is  too  common  in  this  country,  of  eating  flesh 
in  too  great  a proportion  for  health. — Dr.  Deane. 

I.— ESCULENT  EOOTS. 


1.  The  Potato — Solarium  Tuberosum . 

' HE  potato,  called  by  the  French  la  pomme 
de  terre , and  by  the  Germans  bte  ^artoffeb 
is  a native  of  the  elevated  equatorial  regions 
of  South  America,  and  is  still  to  be  found 
in  a wild  state  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Quito  and  other  places.  It  appears  to  have 
been  introduced  into  North  America  and  cultivated  by 
the  Virginia  colonists  as  early  as  1584.  A few  years 
later  it  was  carried  to  England  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 

The  varieties  of  the  potato  are  numberless;  and, 
while  old  sorts  are  constantly  disappearing,  new  ones 
are  every  year  coming  into  notice  and  taking  their  places. 
The  duration  of  a variety  is  believed  by  Knight  and  others  to 
be  limited  to  fourteen  years.  Very  few  sorts  continue  to  be 
cultivated  even  that  length  of  time.  New  varieties  are  readily 
produced  by  planting  the  seed  found  in  the  balls.  The  opera- 
tion is  a simple  one,  and  should  more  frequently  be  undertaken. 
There  is  no  doubt  but  that  varieties  will  yet  be  obtained  in  this 
way  far  superior  to  any  yet  known.  We  give  in  the  Appendix 
full  directions  for  producing  and  proving  new  sorts. 

To  give  a list  of  the  best  varieties  of  the  potato,  were  it 
practicable,  would  be  useless.  The  best  sorts  of  this  year 
may  be  put  in  the  second  or  third  rank  next  year ; besides, 

4 


74 


The  Garden. 


those  to  which  the  preference  is  given  in  New  York  may  be 
considered  inferior  in  Pennsylvania,  and  worthless  in  Georgia. 
Select  for  planting  those  varieties  which  experience  has  decided 
to  he  best  adapted  to  your  soil  and  climate,  and  "to  combine 
the  various  qualities  required  for  table  use. 

In  a cold,  moist  climate  the  potato  thrives  best  in  a light 
but  rich  loam.  In  a dry,  hot  climate  a heavy  loam  is  prefer- 
able, except  for  the  earliest  crop.  Vegetable  manure  is  best 
for  the  potato.  Ashes  and,  where  the  soil  needs  it,  lime,  may 
be  added  with  advantage,  but,  in  garden  culture,  animal  ma- 
nures should,  so  far  as  possible,  be  avoided,  as  their  use  tends 
to  make  the  tubers  moist  and  waxy.  The  manure  should  be 
well  rotted,  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil.  Where  you 
can  not  get  sufficient  manure  of  the  right  kind  to  properly 
enrich  the  whole  soil,  you  may  scatter  it  into  the  drill  or  hill 
to  the  thickness  of  three  or  four  inches. 

In  garden  culture,  plant  in  drills  made  with  the  plow  or  the 
hoe,  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches  apart  (some  varieties 
requiring  more  room  than  others),  placing  the  sets  about  nine 
or  ten  inches  apart  in  the  drills.  Cover  to  the  depth  of  from 
four  to  six  inches,  according  to  the  texture  and  condition  of 
the  soil — a heavy,  moist  soil  requiring  less  depth  of  covering 
than  a light  and  dry  one. 

In  reference  to  the  sets  or  seed,  many  and  contradictory 
opinions  prevail.  Some  contend  that  the  largest-sized  potatoes 
alone  should  be  used  for  planting;  others  prefer  a medium 
size ; while  many  use  those  which  are  too  small  for  the  table. 
Some  plant  them  whole,  while  others  divide  them,  making 
from  two  to  eight  sets  from  each.  Even  scooped-out  eyes 
have  had  their  advocates.  We  have  no  room  in  this  little 
work  to  advance  arguments  or  adduce  evidence,  and  must  be 
content  to  give  our  opinion  (as  indicated  by  the  mode  pursued 
in  our  own  garden),  which,  however,  we  believe  to  be  based 
on  sound  theory  and  supported  by  general  experience.  We 
choose  for  planting  medium  sized , fully  matured , and  every 
way  sound  and  perfect  tubers — such  as  we  would  select  for  th< 


The  Kitchen  Garden. 


75 


table — and,  if  we  have  plenty  of  seed,  plant  them  whole . If 
there  be  a deficiency  of  seed,  or  the  price  be  very  high,  we 
divide  them  longitudinally,  making  two  sets  of  each  potato, 
and  plant  them  with  the  eyes  upward.  They  should  be  cut  a 
week  before  planting ; and  it  is  a good  plan  to  roll  them  in 
ground  plaster  of  Paris  or  old  slaked  lime.  Something  may  be 
gained  in  earliness  by  cutting  the  potato  transversely  in  the 
middle,  and  planting  only  the  seed  end,  which  should  be  set 
upright  in  the  ground. 

In  garden  culture,  potatoes  should  generally  be  hoed  at  least 
three  times,  to  keep  the  weeds  down,  earthing  them  up  a little 
each  time;  but  if  the  ground  be  little  infested  with  weeds, 
twice  will  do.  The  first  hoeing  should  be  given  soon  after  the 
shoots  appear  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  If  they  should 
be  partially  covered  with  earth  by  the  operation,  no  harm  will 
be  done.  Potatoes  should  never  be  hoed  after  the  blossoms 
appear.  Pinching  off  the  flower-buds  will  considerably  increase 
the  crop  of  tubers. 

Potatoes  should  not  be  harvested  till  the  tops  are  mostly 
dead.  They  should  be  exposed  to  the  sun  only  long  enough  to 
dry  them  for  storage.  Store  in  a dry  cellar  (when  there  is 
danger  from  frost),  and  cover  them  with  sand  or  straw.  When 
sprouts  begin  to  grow,  as  they  will  toward  spring,  carefully 
rub  them  off.  Their  growth  will  greatly  injure  the  quality  of 
the  tuber  for  table  use.  Those  intended  for  seed  should  be  fre- 
quently turned  over  to  prevent  premature  growth. 

Of  the  potato  rot , as  it  is  called,  little  can  be  profitably  said. 
Its  cause  and  remedy  are  yet  to  be  made  known.  As  pre- 
ventives, a dry  soil,  the  use  of  lime  and  ashes,  the  absence 
of  fresh  stable  manure,  early  planting,  and  new,  healthy  varie- 
ties are  recommended.  For  arresting  the  disease,  cutting  off 
the  tops  on  the  first  appearance  of  the  blight  is  sometimes 
effectual. 

Potatoes  for  an  early  crop  are  planted  in  this  country  from 
the  first  of  January  to  the  first  of  May,  according  to  the  cli- 
mate and  season.  In  the  latitude  of  ISTew  York  they  may  in 


76 


The  GtAkdeh. 


ordinary  seasons  and  in  favorable  situations  be  put  into  the 
ground  from  the  tenth  to  the  twentieth  of  March. 

For  raising  Irish  potatoes  (as  they  are  invariably  called 
there)  at  the  South,  the  plan  published  by  Mr.  Peabody  of  the 
Soil  of  the  South  is  undoubtedly  a good  one.  We  have  tried 
the  same  mode  with  fair  success  at  the  North,  using  here, 
however,  less  straw.  Mr.  Peabody’s  directions  are  substantially 
as  follows : 

“ As  soon  after  Christmas  as  possible,  plow  or  spade  up  the 
plot  of  ground  designed  for  the  potato  patch,  and  lay  it  off  in 
furrows  two  feet  apart,  and  eight  or  ten  inches  deep.  Fill 
these  furrows  with  decomposed  straw  or  leaves.  Divide  each 
potato  once,  and  place  the  sets,  cut  side  downward,  upon  the 
straw ; now  level  the  ridge  made  by  the  furrow,  covering  seed, 
straw,  and  all,  and  then  scatter  straw  evenly  over  all  to  the 
depth  of  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet.  No  further  culture  is 
required.  In  the  dryest  seasons  the  yield  will  be  greater  than 
when  planted  in  the  ordinary  way.  Many  have  failed  in  this 
mode  of  culture  because  they  have  not  applied  half  straw 
enough.” 

2.  The  Sweet  Potato — Convolvulus  Batatas . 

This  best  of  all  esculent  roots  belongs  to  the  convolvulaceat  or 
bind-weed  family.  It  is  a native  of  the  East  Indies,  but  grows 
in  perfection  in  our  Southern  States.  It  is  raised  in  large 
quantities  in  Delaware  and  New  Jersey,  and  even  farther 
north,  but  the  quality  of  the  tubers  is  inferior  to  thatof  those 
produced  at  the  South. 

A dry,  loamy  soil,  inclining  to  sand,  is  best  for  the  sweet 
potato.  It  should  be  well  manured.  The  special  manure! 
indicated  by  an  analysis  of  the  root  are  potash  and  the  phos- 
phates. 

Where  the  season  is  sufficiently  long  to  mature  it,  the  sweet 
potato  may  be  propagated  by  cutting  the  seed  into  slips,  and 
planting  them  where  they  are  to  grow ; but  at  the  North  the 
sprouts  must  always  be  started  in  a hot-bed.  Place  the  pota- 


The  Kitchen  Garden. 


77 


toes  in  the  bed  early  in  April,  covering  them  three  or  four 
inches  deep.  They  will  throw  up  sprouts  in  three  or  four 
weeks.  When  these  are  about  four  inches  above  the  surface, 
they  may  be  separated  from  the  parent  tuber  and  planted  out 
in  hills,  leaving  the  latter  to  put  out  other  shoots  for  future 
plantings.  The  hills  or  beds  should  be  about  four  feet  apart, 
and  raised  from  six  inches  to  a foot  above  the  common  level  of 
the  ground.  Some  make  continuous  ridges  four  feet  apart,  and 
plant  the  sprouts  on  the  top,  about  a foot  asunder.  They  must 
be  kept  free  from  weeds  till  the  vines  cover  the  ground.  They 
are  fit  for  gathering  when  the  vines  are  dead.  They  are  very 
difficult  to  preserve  through  the  winter.  A careful  seclusion 
from  air  and  light,  the  absence  of  frost,  and  absolute  dryness 
are  essential  to  their  preservation.  The  best  way  to  cook  them 
is  by  baking. 

3.  The  Turnip — Brassica  Rep  a. 

The  French  call  the  turnip  le  navet , and  the  Germans  ber 
(StetfriiBe.  It  has  been  in  cultivation  at  least  two  hundred  and 
fifty  years.  There  are  many  varieties.  For  early  crops  the 
Purple-Top  Strap-Leaved,  Snow-Ball,  and  the  Early  Yellow 
Dutch  are  to  be  preferred.  For  later  sowing  we  would  name 
Robertson’s  Golden  Stone,  Stone  Globe,  Golden  Ball,  Sweet 
German,  the  Purple-Top  Swede,  Skirving’s  Improved  Swede, 
the  White  French,  River’s  Swede,  and  Ashcroft’s  Swede.  Skirv- 
ing’s Improved  is,  perhaps,  the  best  of  the  Swedes. 

Turnips  thrive  best  in  a rich,  sandy  loam.  Bone-dust,  lime, 
ashes,  and  plaster  of  Paris  are  good  special  manures.  Sow  in 
drills  about  two  feet  apart.  Thin  out  the  plants  gradually  to 
six  or  eight  inches  apart.  They  may  be  readily  transplanted 
if  desired.  Stir  the  soil  well,  and  keep  the  weeds  in  subjec- 
tion. English  turnips  do  well  sown  broadcast.  Sow  the  early 
sorts  from  February  to  May,  according  to  climate  and  season. 
Other  sowings  may  be  made  in  July  and  August  for  winter 
use.  In  the  latitude  of  Georgia  they  may  be  sowed  as  late  as 
October.  Harvesting  should  >e  deferred  till  the  approach  of 


78  The  Garden. 

cold  weather — or  at  the  South  they  may  remain  in  the  ground 
all  winter. 

4.  The  Beet — Beta  Vulgaris. 

The  beet  (Fr.  Beterave)  is  a native  of  the  south  of  Europe. 
It  takes  its  name  from  the  form  of  its  seed-vessel,  which  resem- 
bles the  Greek  letter  beta  (/3).  The  best  varieties  are  Extra 
Early  Turnip  or  Bassano,  the  Early  Turnip,  the  Long  Blood, 
and  the  London  Blood. 

A light  soil,  well  enriched  with  manure  and  well  broken  up, 
suits  the  beet.  It  will  grow  in  almost  any  soil.  Sow  in  drills 
a foot  apart  and  about  an  inch  deep.  Drop  the  seeds  three 
inches  apart,  cover  smoothly,  and  press  the  earth  firmly  upon 
them.  Badishes  may  be  sown  in  the  same  bed,  as  they  will 
be  removed  before  the  beets  are  ready  for  thinning.  Keep 
the  ground  well  stirred  and  free  from  weeds,  and  thin  the 
beets  to  about  six  inches  apart.  Sow  the  early  sorts  in  March, 
or  the  first  of  April,  in  the  latitude  of  New  York.  The  later 
varieties  may  he  sowed  in  May  or  June. 

In  gathering  your  beets,  cut  off  the  leaves  an  inch  or  two 
above  the  collar,  and  be  careful  not  to  break  or  bruise  the  root. 
To  preserve  them  through  the  winter,  store  in  a dry  cellar. 
They  keep  best  packed  in  sand. 

5.  The  Oaeeot— Daucus  Carota.  ^ 

The  carrot  (Fr.  Garotte)  is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced 
into  Europe  from  the  island  of  Crete.  The  Early  Horn  is  the 
most  forward  in  ripening,  and  fully  equal  in  color  and  flavor  to 
any  other  sort.  It  may  be  sown  from  the  middle  of  April  to 
the  middle  of  July  in  the  latitude  of  New  York,  and  in  the 
South  from  January  to  April  inclusive.  The  Long  Orange 
grows  very  long  and  large,  hut  is  not  equal  in  flavor  to  the 
Early  Horn.  The  Altringham  is  a bright-red  variety,  of  an 
excellent  flavor,  and  keeps  well  for  winter  use.  It  is  not  quite 
eo  hardy  as  the  other  sorts. 

The  carrot  succeeds  best  in  a light,  rich  soil.  It  must  be 
deeply  dug  and  wel  broken  up,  or  the  roots  will  grow  forked 


The  Kitchen  Garden.  79 

and  crooked.  Choose  a warm  spot  and  a calm  day  for  sowing. 
Sow  in  drills  half  an  inch  deep,  and  for  the  Early  Horn  nine 
inches  apart.  For  the  other  varieties  twelve  inches  apart  is 
better.  Eadishes  may  be  sowed  in  the  same  bed.  Stir  the 
ground  frequently  and  deeply,  and  thin  out  to  from  three  to 
six  inches  apart.  The  latter  is  the  proper  distance  when  the 
plants  are  to  be  left  to  grow  to  the  full  size.  The  directions 
for  preparing  and  preserving  them  for  winter  use  are  the  same 
as  for  beets. 

6.  The  Paksnep — Partinaca  Sativa. 

This  very  palatable  and  exceedingly  nutritious  root  is  a native 
of  Sardinia,  and  in  its  wild  state  is  said  to  be  poisonous.  In 
French  it  is  called  le  panais . The  best  variety  is  the  Sugar 
or  Hollow  Crown.  Soil  and  culture  the  same  as  for  the  carrot 
and  beet.  Bone-dust'  and  ashes  are  the  special  manures  most 
likely  to  be  required.  Late  in  the  fall  take  up  as  many  as  you 
need  for  winter  use.  The  rest  may  remain  in  the  ground,  as 
frost  seems  to  improve  their  flavor.  In  the  South,  lift  them 
as  wanted  during  the  winter. 

7.  Salsify — Tragopogon  Porrifolium. 

The  Salsify,  or  Oyster  Plant,  is  a native  of  England,  and  is 
less  known  in  this  country  than  it  deserves  to  be.  Sow  and 
cultivate  the  same  as  the  parsnep.  A portion  of  the  crop  may 
remain  in  the  ground  all  winter.  Prepared  and  cooked  accord- 
ing to  the  following  directions,  it  will  be  found  to  resemble  the 
oyster  in  flavor : 

Scrape  the  roots  slightly,  soak  them  in  water  for  an  hour, 
and  then  boil  till  quite  tender.  How  let  them  drain  for  a short 
time ; meanwhile  make  a thick  batter  with  white  of  eggs 
beaten  up  with  a little  flour.  Grate  the  roots  tolerably  fine, 
press  them  into  flattened  balls  of  the  size  of  an  oyster,  dip 
them  in  the  batter,  roll  them  into  grated  crackers,  and  fry 
them  in  a pan  till  brown.  Another  way  is  to  parboil,  cut  in 
slices,  and  fry  either  with  )r  without  the  batter.  Try  it. 


80 


"The  Garden. 

8.  Jerusalem  Artichoke — Helianthus  Tuberosus. 

This  plant  is  a species  of  sunflower,  and  is  occasionally  culth 
vated  for  its  tuberous  roots.  It  may  be  planted  like  the  potato, 
and  will  grow  anywhere. 

II. — THE  LEGUMES. 

The  Pea — Pisum  Sativum . 

This  universally  cultivated  plant  originated  in  the  south  of 
Europe.  The  catalogues  of  the  seedsmen  embrace  twenty  or 
more  varieties,  and  new  sorts  are  constantly  appearing.  Of  the 
early  peas,  the  earliest  at  present  known  is  Dillisotone’s  Early, 
and  next,  perhaps,  and  better  known,  is  Early  Dan  O’Rourke. 
Hovey’s  Extra  Early  and  Landreth’s  Extra  Early,  improved 
American  varieties  of  great  merit,  are  nearly  if  not  quite  as 
early  as  the  Dan  O’Rourke.  Champion  of  Paris,  Champion  of 
England  and  Advancer,  all  excellent  sorts,  are  a little  later.  Tom 
Thumb  is  an  early  variety  remarkable  for  its  extreme  dwarfness, 
seldom  rising  over  twelve  inches  in  height. 

Blue  Imperial,  King  of  the  Marrows,  and  the  Ke  Plus  Ultra 
are  among  the  best  to  succeed  the  early  crops.  To  follow  the 
last-named,  for  late  crops,  British  Queen  or  Mammoth ; Carter’s 
Victoria,  Competitor,  Knight’s  Tall  Green  Marrow  and  Cham- 
pion of  Scotland  may  be  recommended.  ^ 

It  is  well  enough  to  give  the  new  varieties  yearly  introduced 
a fair  trial,  as  sorts  superior  to  any  now  named  may  be  origin- 
ated ; but  the  claims  set  up  for  new  kinds  by  interested  propa- 
gators are  often  unfounded  and  preposterous. 

For  the  early  sorts  a light,  warm,  dry,  and  moderately  rich 
soil  is  to  be  preferred.  If  manure  be  used,  it  should  be  web 
rotted ; but  it  is  better  to  take  ground  which  has  been  made 
sufficiently  rich  by  a previous  year’s  manuring.  The  later  and 
taller  varieties  require  a heavier  soil. 

You  may  plant  your  early  peas  at  almost  any  time  when  the 
ground  is  not  actually  frozen,  covering  with  mulch  if  necessary. 
In  the  .atitude  of  New  York  they  may  generally  be  planted 
before  the  twentieth  of  March — sometimes  on  the  first — and 


The  Kitchen  Garden. 


81 


require  no  protection.  In  the  South,  any  time  from  January 
to  March  will  do.  Plant  in  double  drills,  from  six  to  nine 
inches  apart,  according  to  the  variety.  The  rows  should  be 
three  feet  apart  for  the  smaller  sorts,  and  from  four  to  six  for 
the  larger.  Cover  the  early  kinds  one  inch  deep,  and  the  late 
an  inch  and  a half.  The  sticks  should  he  from  two  and  a half 
to  three  feet  for  the  early  sorts.  The  British  Queen  reaches 
the  height  of  five  or  six  feet,  and  Knight’s  Tall  Marrow  is  a still 
loftier  grower.  When  the  plants  are  about  two  inches  high, 
stir  the  ground  well,  and  earth  them  up  a little.  Repeat  this 
operation  several  times  before  setting  the  sticks  or  brush, 
which  should  be  done  when  the  peas  are  from  six  to  eight 
inches  high.  If  the  season  he  dry,  watering  will  much  increase 
the  crop.  Topping  off  the  points  of  the  vines  soon  after  the 
first  blossoms  appear  will  hasten  the  growth  of  the  fruit.  The 
smaller  kinds  of  early  peas  may  be  planted  about  half  an  inch 
apart  in  the  drills,  and  the  later  and  larger  sorts  from  a third 
of  an  inch  to  an  inch.  It  is  well  to  soak  them  twenty-four 
hours  before  planting. 

To  forward  an  early  crop,  plant  in  lines  from  east  to  west, 
and  stick  a row  of  cedar,  spruce-fir,  or  other  evergreen  branches 
along  the  north  side,  sloping  so  as  to  bend  over  the  plants  at 
one  foot  or  eighteen  inches  from  the  ground.  These  protect 
them  from  cold  rains  and  at  the  same  time  leave  them  open  to 
the  full  influence  of  the  sun.  Behind  this  temporary  hedge 
there  should  be  a close  board  fence,  a brick  or  stone  wall,  or  a 
high  close  hedge. 

Beans,  cabbage,  lettuce,  radish,  or  celery  may  be  planted 
between  the  rows  of  peas,  especially  of  the  earlier  sorts. 

Peas  which  are  to  be  ripened  or  dried  should  not  be  sowed 
before  the  tenth  of  June,  as  all  earlier  crops  will  be  infected 
with  bugs. 

2.  The  Bush-Bean — Phaseolus  Vulgaris . 

The  bean  is  believed  to  be  a native  of  India,  whence  it  was 
Drought  to  England  near  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  In 

4* 


82 


The  Garden. 


one  form  or  another  it  is  universally  esteemed.  Of  the  com- 
mon Bush,  Snap,  or  Kidney  bean  there  are  many  varieties. 
Among  the  best  are  the  Early  Mohawk  (a  very  hardy  sort), 
Early  Six  Weeks,  Early  Valentine,  Early  Dun  Colored,  Early 
Pink  Eye,  Early  White  Marrow,  Late  Valentine,  and  the  Royal 
Kidney.  The  tender  pods  of  all  these  sorts  are  eaten  as  string- 
beans  ; but  they  are  also  excellent  taken  from  the  pods  after 
they  are  nearly  or  quite  grown,  and  boiled  and  prepared  in  the 
same  way  that  Lima  beans  usually  are.  For  this  mode  of  cook- 
ing we  prefer  the  Pink  Eye  and  the  Early  White  Marrow. 

Beans  will  thrive  in  almost  any  soil ; but  for  an  early  crop 
it  should  be  light  and  dry.  If  the  ground  be  too  wet,  they  are 
liable  to  rot.  Bone-dust,  ashes,  and  super-phosphate  of  lime 
are  very  useful  as  manures.  The  bean  is  destroyed  by  a slight 
frost,  and  can  therefore  seldom  be  planted,  in  this  climate,  till 
the  middle  of  April,  or  even  later.  Plant  once  in  two  weeks 
till  the  last  of  August,  to  keep  up  a succession  for  the  table. 
Plant  in  drills  from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  asunder,  drop- 
ping the  beans  two  inches  apart,  and  covering  them  about  an 
inch  deep.  Give  them  frequent  and  deep  hoeings,  drawing  a 
little  earth  to  the  stems.  ^ 

The  Small  White  bean,  so  extensively  used  in  Mew  .England 
for  baking,  may  be  planted  in  any  vacant  spots  in  the  garden 
in  June  or  July,  and  will  require  no  care  except  to  keep  the 
weeds  down. 

3.  The  Common  Pole  Bean — Phaseolus  Multiflorus. 

Of  the  common  running  or  pole  bean  ( le  haricot  a rames  of 
the  French),  the  best  varieties  are  the  Dutch  Case  Knife,  London 
Horticultural,  White  Cranberry,  and  Scarlet  Runner.  Plant 
in  hills  from  the  first  to  the  middle  of  May,  and  give  them 
poles  when  they  begin  to  put  forth  runners ; or,  better,  set  the 
poles  first,  and  plant  the  beans  around  them.  Or  they  may  be 
planted  in  drills  along  a border,  or  on  each  side  of  a walk,  and 
trained  on  a slight  trellis  of  laths  and  lines,  and  thus  be  made 
emamenta.  as  well  as  useful. 


TnE  Kitchen  Gakden. 


83 


4.  The  Lima  Bean — PJiaseolus  Limensis. 

Of  tlie  PJiaseolus  Limensis  there  are  three  varieties  cultivated 
in  the  United  States — the  Green  Lima,  the  White  Lima,  and 
the  Carolina  Sewee.  The  White  Lima  is  to  he  preferred.  It 
requires  a strong,  rich  soil,  and  should  not  he  planted  till 
settled,  warm  weather,  as  the  seed  is  very  liable  to  rot  in  the 
ground  if  the  weather  be  cool. 

Beans  of  all  kinds  can  easily  be  preserved  for  winter  use, 
with  very  little  loss  of  flavor.  You  have  only  to  pick  them  in 
the  same  state  as  when  for  immediate  use,  and  dry  them  thor- 
oughly in  the  sun.  You  may  have  green  beans  all  the  year 
with  very  little  trouble. 

5.  The  Pea-Yut — AracMs  Hypogea . 

This  plant,  known  also  as  the  pindar  ground  pea  and  ground 
nut,  is  a legume  bearing  its  seed  under  ground.  It  is  cultivated 
extensively  in  some  of  the  Southern  States  as  a field  crop,  but  a 
few  hills  may  find  place  in  the  Southern  garden.  Make  the 
hills  two  and  a half  or  three  feet  apart,  and  drop  three  or  four 
of  the  shelled  seeds  in  each.  Cover  them  two  inches  deep. 
Thin  the  plants  to  two  in  a hill,  and  keep  the  ground  free  from 
weeds. 

III. — THE  CABBAGE  FAMILY. 

1.  The  Common  Cabbage — Brassica  Oleracea. 

The  cabbage  (Fr.  chou  pomme)  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  of 
garden  vegetables.  It  is  mentioned  by  Pliny  as  being  much 
esteemed  in  his  times.  It  was  a favorite  with  the  Romans,  who 
probably  introduced  it  into  England.  Its  varieties  are  almost 
numberless.  Of  the  common  cabbage,  the  following  are  the 
most  desirable : Early  York  (very  early,  and  of  a delicate  flavor), 
Atkins’  Matchless  (small  but  tender  and  delicately  flavored,) 
Large  York,  Early  Drumhead,  Winningstadt  (intermediate  in 
season),  Bergen  Drumhead,  Large  Drumhead,  MarbLehead 
Mammoth,  Champion  of  America,  Mason,  and  Stone-Mason 
(late).  The  Bergen  Drumhead,  Marblehead  Mammoth  and 
Stone-Mason  grow  to  a very  large  size,  and  are  favorites  witk 


84 


The  Garden. 


market-gardeners.  The  large  Red  Dutch  is  one  of  the  latest 
of  cabbages.  It  is  chiefly  used  for  pickling.  The  Utrecht  Red 
is  a smaller  red  cabbage  of  fine  quality. 

The  cabbage  will  grow  in  any  soil  sufficiently  enriched  and 
properly  prepared.  It  must  be  plowed  or  dug  deeply,  and  well 
pulverized.  Common  salt,  ashes,  plaster  of  Paris,  and  bone- 
dust  may  be  used  with  advantage,  as  the  plant  abounds  in  sul- 
phur, phosphorus,  soda,  and  potash.  Animal  manures  may 
also  be  freely  used. 

For  producing  early  spring  cabbages,  various  plans  are  pur- 
sued. The  best  mode  for  general  adoption  is  the  following: 
About  the  tenth  of  September,  for  southern  New  York  (a  little 
earlier  for  New  England,  and  a little  later  for  the  South),  sow 
seeds  of  the  Early  York,  Nonpareil,  or  Yanack  in  a seed-bed 
of  rich,  light  soil.  If  the  weather  be  dry,  sprinkle  the  bed 
with  water  a few  times,  to  promote  germination.  When  large 
enough  to  transplant,  set  them  quite  thickly  in  a cold  frame  or 
walled  pit,  for  protection  during  the  winter.  The  frame  or 
pit  may  be  covered  with  boards,  adding  straw,  if  necessary, 
when  the  frost  is  severe.  Give  the  plants  air  whenever  the 
weather  will  permit.  Carefully  exclude  the  rain,  as  too  much 
moisture  will  injure  them.  Early  in  the  spring  transplant  into 
the  compartment  of  the  garden  designed  for  them.  WThere  the 
winters  are  not  too  severe,  they  may  be  brought  forward  a 
week  or  two  earlier  by  planting  them  out  in  the  fall  in  good, 
rich  soil,  previously  prepared  by  throwing  it  up  into  high 
ridges,  running  east  and  west,  and  about  two  feet  apart.  On 
the  south  sides  of  these  ridges  set  out  the  plants  one  foot  apart. 
They  will  then  be  shielded  from  the  north  winds,  and  receive 
all  the  benefit  of  the  sun.  When  the  weather  becomes  severe, 
cover  with  straw,  laying  it  across  the  ridges.  This  may  be 
removed  whenever  mild  weather  returns.  Early  cabbages 
may  also  be  obtained  by  starting  the  plants  in  a hot-bed,  sowing 
in  February  or  March. 

In  transplanting  cabbages,  especially  the  early  ones,  the 
growth  of  which  it  is  important  not  to  cneck,  take  them  un 


The  Kitchen  Garden.  85 

with  a trowel,  removing  considerable  earth  with  them,  in  order 
not  to  disturb  their  roots. 

For  summer,  autumn,  and  winter  use,  sow  Early  Dutch  and 
Drumhead  in  April  and  May.  Transplant  into  rows  two  feet 
apart,  and  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Give  the  plants 
a copious  watering  the  evening  previous  to  taking  up,  and 
water  again  after  setting  out.  The  whole  secret  of  their  after- 
culture lies  in  frequent  and  deep  hoeing . Hoe  while  the  dew 
is  on,  if  practicable.  Never  strip  off  the  lower  leaves. 

To  preserve  cabbages  in  perfection  through  the  winter,  the 
following  is  the  best  mode  with  which  we  are  acquainted : As 
late  in  the  fall  as  the  weather  will  permit,  dig  trenches  eighteen 
or  twenty  inches  apart,  parallel  to  each  other,  and  of  any  con- 
venient length.  Now  dig  out  your  cabbages  with  a spade,  and 
transplant  them  into  these  trenches  as  close  together  as  they 
will  stand,  covering  root  and  stem  to  the  lower  leaf.  Around 
this  bed  raise  a kind  of  frame  with  old  po#s,  rails,  or  boards 
and  earth,  making  it  a little  higher  at  one  side  than  the  other, 
and  high  enough  at  the  lower  side  to  prevent  its  roof  or  cover- 
ing from  coming  in  contact  with  the  cabbages.  Across  this 
frame  place  poles,  lath,  or  narrow  boards,  and  cover  the 
whole  thickly  with  straw,  bean  haulm,  corn-stalks,  or  any  ma- 
terial of  that  sort.  In  this  way  you  may  have  cabbages  up  to 
April,  of  as  fine  a flavor  as  when  transplanted  into  the  trenches. 
A few  may  be  transplanted  into  a similar  trench  in  the  cellar, 
where,  of  course,  they  will  require  no  covering. 

2.  Savoy  Cabbage — Brassica  Oleracea  Sabauda. 

This  member  of  the  great  cabbage  family  takes  its  name  from 
Savoy.  It  differs  from  the  common  cabbage  in  the  wrinkled 
character  of  its  leaves.  There  are  only  two  varieties  worthy 
of  culture — the  Curled  and  the  Drumhead.  The  former  is  to 
be  preferred  for  family  use.  It  is  superior  in  delicacy  to  the 
common  cabbage.  Cultivation  the  same  as  the  winter  varieties 
vf  the  latterc 

Brussels  Sprouts  (chou  de  Bruxelles)  is  considered  a sub- 


86 


The  Garden. 


variety  of  the  Savoy.  It  is  a celebrated  vegetable  in  Europe, 
but  is  not  often  seen  in  American  gardens.  Sow  in  April,  and 
transplant  in  June  into  rows  eighteen  inches  apart.  Cultivate 
like  cabbages.  The  stem  grows  to  the  height  of  two  feet  or 
more,  and  is  crowned  with  numerous  little  heads  of  from  one 
to  two  inches  in  diameter.  After  they  have  been  frosted 
(which  is  necessary  to  their  perfection),  they  may  be  gathered. 
To  prepare  them  for  the  table,  soak  an  hour  in  cold  water ; 
boil  about  twenty  minutes ; drain ; season  to  the  taste ; stew 
gently  in  a sauce  of  cream  or  floured  butter,  stirring  them  con- 
stantly. They  are  sometimes  served  with  tomato  sauce.  They 
may  also  he  cooked  simply  as  cabbages,  and  eaten  with  meat. 

3.  Borecole — Brassica  Oleracea  Fimbriata . 

• 

This  plant,  also  called  German  Greens  (Fr.  chou  vert)  and 
Scotch  Kale,  is  one  of  the  most  delicate  and  valuable  of  the 
cabbage  tribe.  It  has  large,  wrinkled  leaves,  forming  an  open 
head  or  stool.  It  is  perfectly  hardy,  frost  only  improving  it. 
It  remains  green  and  eatable  all  winter,  requiring  only  a slight 
protection  in  the  Northern  States,  and  none  at  all  at  the  South. 
For  winter  and  spring  greens  it  is  unequaled.  Sow  and 
cultivate  'the  same  as  the  cabbage.  Ko  garden  should  be 
without  it. 

4.  The  Cauliflower — Brassica  Oleracea  Botrytis. 

The  cauliflower  is  a kind  of  cabbage,  with  long,  pale  green 
leaves,  surrounding  a mass  or  head  of  white  flower-buds.  The 
French  very  appropriately  call  it  le  chou-fleur.  It  was  intro- 
duced into  England  from  the  island  of  Cyprus.  There  are  only 
two  true  varieties — the  Early  and  the  Late. 

The  cauliflower  requires  a very  rich  soil  and  careful  culture. 
For  the  early  spring  or  summer  crop,  sow  the  seed  from  the 
first  to  the  twentieth  of  September  in  a properly  prepared 
seed-bed.  When  the  plants  are  two  inches  high,  transplant 
them  into  a bed  of  very  rich,  light  soil,  three  inches  apart  each 
way,  so  that  they  may  grow  firm  and  stocky  for  removal  to  theif 


The  Kitchen  Garden. 


87 


final  place  of  growth.  This  should  be  a bed  of  the  richest 
light  earth,  two  feet  deep,  and  one  third  of  it  well-decomposed 
manure,  surrounded  by  a frame  or  wall,  and  covered  with  glass 
or  shutters.  An  open  exposure,  sheltered  from  the  northwest, 
is  essential.  The  bed  should  be  prepared  about  the  first  of 
October,  to  give  it  time  to  settle.  Into  this  bed  remove  your 
plants  about  the  middle  of  October  (or  earlier  in  a very  cold 
climate),  setting  them  eighteen  inches  apart.  Take  them  up 
carefully  with  a trowel,  and  in  planting  press  down  the  soil 
pretty  firmly  upon  the  roots,  giving  it  a gentle  watering  at  the 
same  time.  No  further  watering  will  be  required  till  spring. 
Protect  the  plants  carefully  against  frost,  covering  the  sash  or 
shutters  with  matting  or  straw  if  necessary ; but  do  not  neglect 
to  give  them  the  air  every  mild,  clear  day.  They  must  not  be 
left  open  to  the  rain,  as  too  much  moisture  will  cause  them  to 
“damp  off,”  as  it  is  called,  at  the  neck.  When  the  weather 
becomes  warmer  in  spring,  copious  waterings  may  be  given. 
Soap-suds  and  other  liquid  manures  are  applied  with  advantage. 
Early  lettuce  may  be  sowed  in  the  same  bed  between  the  rows 
of  cauliflowers. 

When  a cauliflower  has  attained  its  full  size,  which  will  be 
indicated  by  the  opening  of  the  border,  cut  off  the  head  with 
several  inches  of  the  stem,  and  most  of  the  leaves,  these  being 
taken  off,  however,  before  cooking. 

For  the  autumn  crop  sow  in  April,  transplant  into  rich  soil, 
two  feet  apart.  Hoe  frequently  and  deeply,  and  if  the  season 
be  dry,  water  copiously.  They  must  not  suffer  from  drouth. 
You  may  know  when  they  need  water  by  the  drooping  of  the 
leaves.  The  hills  about  the  plant  should  form  a hollow  basin 
to  retain  the  moisture. 

The  cauliflower  is  a wholesome  and  nutritious  vegetable,  and 
should  be  more  generally  cultivated.  To  cook,  soak  an  hour 
in  cold  water  with  a handful  of  salt  in  it ; then  boil  till  tender 
in  milk  and  water,  taking  care  to  skim  the  surface,  so  that  not 
the  least  foulness  may  fall  on  the  flower.  It  may  be  served  up 
with  sauce,  gravy,  or  melted  butter. 


88 


The  Garden. 


5.  Broccoli — Brassica  Oleracea  Botrytis  Gy  mom. 

This  plant  is  similar  to  the  cauliflower,  from  which  it  is  sup- 
posed to  have  originated.  It  differs  from  the  latter  in  its  undu- 
lating leaves,  its  larger  size,  and  its  color.  It  is  also  a hardier 
plant,  but  not  so  delicate  in  flavor.  Grange’s  Early  White 
and  the  Purple  Cape  are  the  best  varieties.  White  recommends 
the  latter  for  the  South.  Sow  in  April  or  May,  and  treat  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  late  cauliflower.  They  will  commence 
heading  in  October.  To  have  them  during  the  winter,  in  a 
northern  climate,  they  must  be  pitted  in  a cellar  or  shed. 
South  of  Virginia  they  need  little,  if  any,  protection. 

The  turnip  cabbage  (fo^I  rati),  Brassica  napo  brassica , and 
the  turnip-rooted  cabbage,  Brassica  caulo  rapa , may  be  added 
to  our  list,  although  they  are  little  cultivated.  The  former,  of 
which  the  Char  JSfavet  de  Laporie , from  France,  is  the  best, 
requires  the  same  cultivation  as  the  cabbage,  and  the  latter 
should  be  treated  like  the  Swede  turnip.  The  Green  Stemmed 
and  the  Purple  Stemmed  are  recommended. 

- IV.— 8PINACEOUS  PLANTS. 

1.  Spinach — Spinacea  Oleracea . 

This  vegetable — Vepinard  of  the  French — is  a native  of 
Spain,  and  is  extensively  cultivated  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 
It  is  excellent  for  greens,  and  should  receive  more  attention 
than  has  yet  been  accorded  to  it  in  this  country.  There  are 
three  varieties — the  Prickly-Seeded,  the  Round-Seeded,  and  the 
Flanders.  The  first  is  best  for  sowing  in  the  fall  for  winter 
crops,  in  a cold  climate  ; but  for  spring  sowing,  and  for  a mild 
climate,  the  second  is  to  be  preferred.  The  Flanders  is  little 
known  in  this  country,  but  is  said  to  be  superior  to  either  of 
the  other  sorts. 

Spinach  requires  a rich  soil.  Sow  in  drills  a quarter  of  an 
inch  deep  and  nine  inches  apart.  For  winter  and  early  spring 
crops,  sow  about  the  last  of  August,  and  again  about  the  mid- 
dle of  September.  For  summer  use,  sow  from  the  first  of 


The  Kitchen  Garden. 


89 


April  to  the  twenty-fifth  of  May.  Select  an  open  situation. 
If  the  soil  he  light  and  dry,  it  must  he  trodden  down  or  rolled 
with  a roller  on  sowing.  Thin  out  the  plants  to  nine  inches 
apart.  Hoe  frequently  and  thoroughly.  The  winter  crop  will 
require  the  protection  of  a thin  layer  of  straw  during  the 
severe  weather. 

2.  New  Zealand  Spinach — Tetragonia  Expansa. 

This  is  an  annual  plant  from  New  Zealand.  It  furnishes  a 
good  substitute  for  spinach  during  the  summer,  when  the  latter 
fails,  but,  as  it  requires  to  be  forwarded  in  a frame  or  hot-bed, 
is  hardly  worth  the  trouble  it  costs  in  a northern  climate. 

Garden  Orache  ( atriplex  hortensis)  and  Garden  Patience 
(rumex  patienta)  are  sometimes  used  in  the  place  of  spinach, 
but  are  only  worthy  of  a mere  mention  here. 

V.— ASPARAGINOUS  PLANTS. 

1.  Asparagus — Asparagus  Officinalis . 

The  asparagus  plant  is  a native  of  the  sea-coasts  of  Great 
Britain.  The  varieties  may  be  reduced  to  two — the  Green  Top 
and  the  Purple  Top. 

Asparagus  is  propagated  only  by  seed,  but  in  forming  a new 
bed  it  is  the  most  economical  plan  to  procure  plants  two  or 
three  years  old  from  some  nurseryman  or  gardener.  If  you 
purpose  to  raise  your  own  plants,  sow  early  in  the  spring,  in  a 
seed-bed  formed  of  rich,  sandy  loam,  in  drills  an  inch  and  a 
half  deep,  and  eighteen  inches  from  row  to  row,  pressing  the 
earth  firmly  upon  the  seed.  Keep  the  bed  free  from  weeds  by 
frequent  hoeing.  About  the  first  of  the  following  November 
spread  stable  litter  or  something  of  the  sort  over  the  ground,  to 
keep  the  young  plants  from  the  frost. 

For  the  permanent  bed,  a rich,  sandy  loam  is  best.  Select, 
if  possible,  an  open  situation  and  a warm  southern  exposure. 
T rench  or  spade  deeply,  digging  in  a plenty  of  manure,  as  the 
8i;il  can  hardly  be  made  too  rich  or  too  deep.  Over  a plot 
forty  feet  long  and  twenty  feet  wide  (which  will  be  large 


90 


The  Gakdebt. 


\ 


enough  for  a moderate  family),  sow  from  fifty  to  a hundred 
pounds  of  salt,  incorporating  it  with  the  soil  to  the  depth  of 
four  or  five  inches.  The  ground  having  been  well  pulverized 
and  leveled,  lay  it  off  into  beds  about  four  feet  wide,  with 
alleys  two  feet  wide  between  them.  Drive  a stake  at  each 
corner.  This  work  should  all  he  done  toward  the  end  of 
March.  Now  cut  a small  trench  or  furrow  six  inches  deep, 
lengthwise  of  the  bed,  and  about  nine  inches  from  the  edge. 
Take  up  the  plants  very  carefully  from  the  seed  rows,  and  set 
them  in  this  trench  or  furrow,  nine  inches  apart,  with  the 
crown  of  the  root  two  inches  below  the  surface,  and  cover 
them  at  once.  Proceed  in  the  same  manner  with  the  whole, 
making  the  rows  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  apart.  A damp 
day  should  be  chosen  for  the  operation,  which  must  he  care- 
fully and  skillfully  performed.  Keep  the  weeds  down  during 
the  summer,  and  on  the  approach  of  severe  weather  cover  the 
beds  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  inches  with  rotten  manure. 
The  first  two  years  the  plants  are  permitted  to  run  up  to 
stalks,  that  strong  crowns  may  be  formed  at  their  base  for  a 
future  crop.  Tjhe  winter  dressing  of  manure  must  he  continued 
while  the  bed  lasts,  the  tops  being  cut  off  and  removed  each 
fall.  In  the  spring,  so  soon  as  the  frost  will  permit,  loosen  the 
surface  of  the  beds  with  a manure  fork,  introducing  it  three 
or  four  inches  into  the  soil,  and  turning  it  up,  being  careful 
not  to  injure  the  crown  of  the  roots.  A full  crop  may  he  ex- 
pected the  fourth  year  after  planting,  or  at  the  South  a year 
earlier.  Out  when  about  four  or  five  inches  above  the  surface. 
The  shoot  should  he  cut  off  slantingly  about  three  inches 
below  the  surface,  using  a long,  sharp-pointed  knife.  The 
cutting  should  never  extend  beyond  the  middle  of  June. 

With  good  culture,  an  asparagus  bed  will  continue  product- 
ive for  fifteen  years,  but  too  many  shoots  must  not  he  cut  from 
it,  nor  the  cutting  prolonged  beyond  the  time  we  have  named. 

2.  Sea  Kale — Cramba  Maratima . 

This  plant  is  closely  related  to  the  cabbage,  and  is  called  by 


The  Kitchen  Garden.  91 

the  French  le  chou  marin,  It  is  easily  cultivated,  and  we  rec- 
ommend our  readers  to  try  it. 

Sea  Kale  flourishes  best  in  a sandy  soil,  well  enriched  with 
decomposed  vegetable  manure  and  a top-dressing  of  salt.  Sow 
the  seed  in  March  or  April,  watering  the  bed  freely  if  the 
weather  be  dry.  Thin  out  the  plants  gradually  to  two  or  three 
inches  apart,  keeping  the  bed  free  from  weeds  by  frequent 
hoeing.  In  November  cover  the  crowns  of  the  plants  with  a 
few  inches  of  earth.  In  the  spring,  prepare  beds  as  for  aspara- 
gus, and  remove  your  plants  in  a similar  manner,  setting  them 
about  two  feet  apart,  and  covering  the  crown  of  the  root  about 
two  inches  deep.  Water  occasionally,  if  the  season  be  dry, 
and  hoe  frequently.  Allow  no  plants  to  go  to  seed.  Early  in 
November  give  the  bed  two  inches  of  well-rotted  manure, 
forking  it  over  lightly  at  the  same  time.  Now  cover  the 
crowns  of  the  plants  with  three  or  four  inches  of  light  soil,  or 
with  pure  sand  if  you  can  readily  procure  it.  The  bed  being 
thus  finished,  cover  the  crowns  of  the  plants  with  large  pots 
or  boxes,  sinking  them  one  or  two  inches  in  the  ground,  and 
carefully  stopping  any  holes  in  them.  Then  procure  a quantity 
of  leaves  from  the  woods,  mix  them  with  about  the  same 
quantity  of  warm  stable  manure,  and  cover  the  ground  and 
boxes  to  the  depth  of  twenty  inches.  In  severe  weather 
throw  over  this  some  dry  litter  or  boards.  The  materials  will 
come  to  a heat  in  two  or  three  weeks ; and  in  three  or  four 
weeks  more  it  will  be  time  to  examine  a pot  or  two,  and  when 
the  plants  are  found  to  have  sprouts  from  six  to  eight  inches 
long,  they  may  be  cut  for  use.  Remove  a portion  of  the  earth, 
and  cut  close  to  the  crown,  and  then  replace  the  box  or  pot, 
and  the  other  materials,  and  other  shoots  will  soon  appear. 
The  plants  will  continue  in  a vigorous  state  of  growth  for  two 
months,  giving  you  a supply  for  the  table  nearly  the  whole 
winter ; and  having  your  bed  once  formed,  the  forcing  process 
just  described  may  be  repeated  every  year  for  fourteen  or  fif- 
teen years.  In  the  spring  remove  the  covering  gradually,  dig- 
ging in  a few  inches  of  the  decayed  material  to  strengthen  the 
plant  for  a future  crop. 


92 


The  Garden. 


\ 


To  have  sea  kale  without  forcing,  cover  the  plants  early  in 
the  spring  with  eight  or  ten  inches  of  sand,  or  fine,  light  soil. 
They  will  produce  strong  shoots,  which,  on  clearing  the  ground 
around  them,  will  he  found  to  be  of  a clear  white  color ; or 
they  may  he  blanched  by  covering  them  deeply  with  oat-straw. 
They  are  useless  unless  well  blanched.  The  shoots  are  cooked 
in  the  same  way  as  asparagus. 

VI.— ESCULENT  BULBS. 

1.  The  Onion — Allium  Cepct, 

The  onion  is  supposed  to  he  a native  of  Asia.  Its  culture 
is  of  “inscrutable  antiquity.”  The  most  useful  varieties  are 
the  following:  Red  Dutch,  Portugal,  Strashurg,  and  Silver 
Skinned.  The  first  two  varieties  named  are  very  hardy  and 
keep  well,  hut  are  of  too  strong  a flavor  to  suit  a delicate 
taste ; the  last  two  are  mild-flavored,  hut  are  not  good  keepers. 
The  Silver  Skinned  is  much  used  for  pickling.  For  winter  use 
we  should  choose  the  Strashurg. 

The  onion  requires  a light  and  friable,  hut  rich  and  some- 
what meist  soil.  The  manure  used  should  he  well  decomposed. 
It  need  npt  he  deeply  mixed  with  the  soil,  as  the  roots  of  the 
plant  do  not  extend  far  below  the  surface.  The  whole  must 
be  thoroughly  pulverized.  The  onion  may  he  sowed  so  soon 
as  the  ground  is  in  a condition  to  he  worked  in  the  spring. 
Sow  in  drills  half  an  inch  deep  and  nine  or  ten  inches  apart. 
After  sowing,  press  the  soil  down  firmly  with  a hoard.  Keep 
the  bed  free  from  weeds,  and  stir  the  soil  frequently,  hut  not 
deeply.  The  onion  should  not  he  earthed  up  at  all.  It  is  bet- 
ter that  the  hulb  should  he  formed  entirely  above  the  surface. 
They  should  he  thinned  out  to  two  inches  apart.  This  we  con- 
sider the  best  mode  of  culture  for  the  main  crop. 

For  an  early  crop,  sow  the  seed  thickly  in  drills  early  in 
April ; and  when  the  bulbs  have  grown  to  the  size  of  peas,  lift 
them,  and  put  away  in  an  airy  loft,  to  keep  till  the  next  spring, 
when  set  them  in  shallow  drills,  covering  very  lightly,  if  at  all. 
They  will  he  ripe  in  June  or  July.  Soap-suds  will  not  bf> 


r 

The  Kitchen  Gaedeh.  93 

wasted  on  the  onion  bed.  Soot  and  ashes  are  also  good  for 
top-dressings. 

To  preserve  the  winter  crop,  pull  in  a dry  day,  put  them 
under  a shed  or  similar  shelter  to  dry,  and  store  in  a loft  where 
they  can  have  plenty  of  air. 

Onions  may  he  sparingly  eaten  as  a salad,  hut  in  the  raw 
state  are  rather  difficult  of  digestion.  They  are  most  whole- 
some boiled.  Boil  twenty  minutes  in  water,  with  a little  salt ; 
then  pour  off  the  water  entirely,  and  put  in  equal  parts  of  hot 
water  and  milk,  or  skimmed  milk  alone,  and  boil  twenty  min- 
utes more.  They  may  he  fried  or  roasted,  hut  are  more  diffi- 
cult of  digestion  in  those  modes  of  cooking. 

2.  The  Top  oe  Tkee  Onion — Allium  Proliferum. 

This  is  a very  hardy  species,  producing  little  bulbs  at  the  top 
of  its  seed-stem.  It  is  easily  cultivated,  comes  early  to  maturity, 
and  never  fails  to  produce  a crop.  Plant  the  little  bulbs  very 
early  in  the  spring,  cultivating  the  plants  in  the  same  way  as 
the  other  species.  They  will  be  ready  for  use  in  May  or  June. 
If  large  bulbs  are  required,  the  seed-stem  must  be  broken  off. 
Those  not  thus  treated  will  produce  seed  for  the  next  year. 
The  top  bulbs  are  considered  excellent  for  pickling. 

3.  Potato  Onion — Allium  Tuberosum . 

This  is  supposed  to  be  the  kind  of  onion  that  was  worshiped 
by  the  Egyptians.  It  is  said  never  to  produce  either  flowers 
or  seed.  It  is  propagated  by  offsets  from  the  bulbs  which 
should  be  planted  in  March,  in  drills  eighteen  inches  apart. 
Set  them  three  inches  below  the  surface,  and  six  inches  apart. 
Keep  the  ground  well  stirred,  but  do  not  earth  up  the  plants. 
They  may  be  lifted  by  the  top  as  they  ripen,  which  will  be 
shown  by  the  drooping  and  withering  of  the  leaves.  In  this 
climate  they  generally  ripen  in  August.  They  are  milder  in 
flavor  than  those  raised  from  the  seed,  but  the  bulbs  are  not  so 
large. 

4.  The  Shallot — Allium  Ascalonicum. 

This  plant — VescJialote  of  the  French — was  introduced  into 


94 


The  Garden. 


\ 


Europe  from  the  town  of  Ascalon,  in  Syria.  It  is  little  used 
in  this  country,  except  by  the  French,  but  is  to  be  preferred 
to  the  onion  for  some  of  the  purposes  of  cookery.  It  is  propa 
gated  by  offsets,  which  may  be  planted  in  the  spring,  like  the 
sets  of  the  onion.  Store  in  the  same  way  as  other  onions. 

5.  The  Leek — Allium  P or rum. 

The  leek  (Fr.  jporreau)  is  cultivated  in  France  to  an  almost 
incredible  extent,  as  it  forms  an  absolutely  essential  ingredient 
of  the  soup  on  which  the  great  body  of  the  nation  lives.  The 
London  Flag  and  the  Musselburgh  are  improved  varieties  of 
the  common  leek. 

The  soil  for  the  leek  must  be  rich,  deep,  and  well  worked. 
The  manure  used  must  be  well  decomposed.  Sow  the  seed 
thinly,  in  drills  six  inches  apart  and  half  an  inch  deep.  Thin 
out  the  plants  to  an  inch  apart.  When  about  eight  inches 
high,  transplant  them  into  a bed  previously  prepared  for  them. 
Shorten  the  roots  to  about  an  inch  from  the  plant,  and  cut  off 
two  inches  or  more  from  the  extremity  of  the  leaves.  Dibble 
them  in  drills  eight  inches  apart,  and  so  deeply  as  the  plant 
will  adfnit,  without  covering  the  young  leaves  pushing  from  its 
center.  Choose  moist  or  cloudy  weather  for  the  operation ; or, 
if  dry,  give  the  plants  a copious  watering.  Hoe  frequently, 
drawing  the  earth  about  the  plants  as  they  grow.  They  will 
be  fit  for  use  in  October.  The  whole  plant  is  much  used  in 
soups  and  stews,  but  the  most  delicate  part  is  the  blanched 
stems. 

6.  The  Gaelic — Allium  Sativum. 

The  garlic  is  much  used  in  southern  Europe  in  sauces  and 
salads;  but  its  unpleasant  odor  will,  we  suspect,  debar  it  from 
American  tables  almost  entirely.  The  bulb  is  divisible  into 
numerous  parts  called  u cloves,”  by  means  of  which  it  is  propa- 
gated. Plant  in  the  spring,  in  drills  two  inches  deep  and  six 
inches  apart.  When  the  bulbs  are  grown,  take  then*  up,  clean 
them,  and  hang  up  in  bundles.  A very  slight  flavor  of  garlic 
is  not  unpleasant  in  soups  and  stews. 


The  Kitchen  Garden.  95 

?.  The  Chi  ye — Allium  Schamoprasum. 

This  little  alliaceous  plant  is  sometimes  used  as  a spring 
salad,  or  a seasoning  for  soups.  It  is  easily  propagated  by 
dividing  the  bulbs  or  roots  either  in  autumn  or  spring,  and 
planting  them  in  any  bed  or  border.  It  will  grow  anywhere, 
but  prefers  a moist,  rich  soil.  It  is  generally  spoken  of  in  the 
plural  as  chives  or  cives. 

YII.— SALAD  PLANTS. 

1.  Lettuce — Lactuca  Sativa. 

The  lettuce  is  appropriately  placed  at  the  head  cf  the  list 
of  modern  salad  plants.  There  are  two  grand  varieties  of  the 
lettuce — the  Cabbage  and  the  Cos  or  Upright — and  numerous 
sub-varieties  of  each.  The  best  of  the  cabbage  sorts  are  the 
Early  White  Spring,  White  Gotte,  Early  Simpson,  Summer 
Cabbage,  Green  Curled,  Green  Winter  Cabbage,  White  Silesian, 
Ice  Cabbage,  India,  Versailles  and  Victoria.  The  last  will  make 
good  heads  most  of  the  summer.  Of  the  Cos  or  Upright  sorts 
the  best  are  the  White  and  the  Green  Paris. 

A deep,  rich,  sandy  loam  suits  the  lettuce  plant.  Salt  and 
ashes  are  useful  as  special  manures.  Sow  as  early  as  the  sea- 
son will  permit,  and  repeat  at  different  times  during  the  spring 
and  summer.  For  forcing  in  a hot-bed,  the  Early  Cabbage 
should  be  chosen.  For  a winter  crop,  the  Brown  Dutch  may 
be  treated  as  we  have  recommended  for  Early  York  and  Non- 
pareil cabbages.  In  the  South  it  will  need  no  protection. 

The  Cos  lettuce  must  be  sowed  in  September,  protected 
during  the  winter,  and  transplanted  out  in  the  spring ; or  sowed 
in  a hot-bed  in  February.  The  Cos  varieties  are  improved  by 
tying  up  the  leaves  several  days  before  cutting,  to  blanch  them. 

Lettuce  may  be  had  through  the  winter,  by  sowing  in  Octo- 
ber in  a walled  pit  or  frame,  and  protecting  from  frost  by 
means  of  sash  and  straw  mats,  giving  it  air  in  warm,  clear 
days.  The  earth  should  be  within  eight  inches  of  the  glass. 
Let  the  plants  stand  eight  or  ten  inches  apart.  Water  occa- 
sionally, and  pick  off  all  decayed  leaves.  It  is  a good  precau- 


96 


The  Garden. 


tion  to  surround  the  frame  or  pit  with  leaves  or  straw.  Lettuce 
requires  frequent  and  deep  hoeings. 

2.  Chess — Lepidum  Sativum . 

Of  the  garden  cress  there  are  two  varieties — the  Curled  or 
Pepper-Grass  and  the  Broad-Leafed.  The  former  is  generally 
preferred.  It  forms  an  excellent  salad,  and  is  easily  cultivated. 
To  have  it  early,  sow  in  a hot-bed  in  February.  In  the  open 
ground  it  may  be  sowed  about  the  last  of  March.  The  soil 
should  be  light  and  warm  for  the  first  sowing.  Sow  in  shallow 
drills,  covering  the  seed  very  lightly.  To  have  it  during  the 
season,  sow  every  fortnight.  It  should  grow  rapidly,  and  be 
used  when  quite  young  and  crisp. 

Water-cress  is  found  in  brooks,  in  various  parts  of  the  United 
States,  but  is  seldom  cultivated.  It  also  is  excellent  for  a salad. 

3.  Mustard — Sinapis  Alba . 

This  salad  plant  is  cultivated  in  the  same  manner  as  cress. 
Cut  the  leaves  for  use  while  they  are  crisp  and  tender.  Wash 
''  them  carefully  in  water  to  free  them  from  the  sand  that  is 
liable  to  adhere  to  them.  To  have  a constant  supply,  make 
frequent  sowings.  Table  mustard  is  made  from  the  seeds  of 
Sinapis  nigra . 

4.  Endive — Cichorium  Endiva . 

This  plant  is  a native  of  China  and  Japan,  and  is  much  cul- 
tivated in  Europe.  The  variety  generally  used  for  salads  is  the 
Green  Curled.  The  Broad-Leaved  or  Batavian  is  used  for 
cooking,  in  stews  and  soups. 

A light,  rich  soil  is  desirable  for  the  endive.  An  open  expo- 
sure should  also  be  chosen.  The  best  time  to  sow  for  an  early 
crop  is  about  the  first  of  July  in  this  climate.  If  sowed  ear- 
lier, it  is  apt  to  run  quickly  to  seed.  In  Mew  England,  how- 
ever, it  may  be  sowed  by  the  middle  of  June.  In  the  South, 
White  says,  sow  in  August  and  September.  Sow  in  drills 
about  four  inches  deep,  and  about  a foot  apart,  and  scatter  suf- 
ficient earth  upon  the  seeds  to  cover  them,  leaving  the  drills 


The  Kitchen  Garden. 


97 


to  be  filled  up  in  the  process  of  future  cultivation.  Water 
once  or  twice,  if  the  weather  he  dry.  When  about  two  inches 
high,  thin  out  the  plants  to  ten  inches  apart ; and  when  nearly 
full  grown,  the  leaves  may  be  gathered  up  in  a close,  rounded 
form,  and  tied  with  a shred  of  matting  or  other  soft  string, 
drawing  up  a little  earth  to  the  stems  at  the  same  time. 
Choose  a dry  day  for  this  operation,  and  tie  up  only  a few 
plants  at  a time,  or  in  proportion  as  they  may  be  wanted  for 
use.  They  may  also  be  blanched  by  covering  them  with  pots 
or  boxes.  It  will  take  about  ten  days  in  warm  weather,  and 
about  twenty  in  cold  weather,  for  the  leaves  to  blanch  for  use. 

For  late  crops,  sow  about  the  end  of  July.  To  have  endive 
in  perfection  during  the  winter,  it  must  be  moved  into  frames 
or  walled  pits  about  the  first  of  November,  taking  up  consider- 
able earth  with  the  roots.  Give  air  and  light  in  mild  weather, 
but  protect  from  heavy  rains  and  severe  frosts. 

5.  Celery — Apium  Graveolens. 

Celery  is  a native  of  Great  Britain,  and  in  its  wild  state  is  a 
coarse,  rank  weed.  Cultivation  has  made  it  one  of  the  pleas- 
antest-flavored  of  all  salad  plants.  There  are  several  varieties. 
The  Red  Solid  is  the  hardiest,  and  is  therefore  generally  pre- 
ferred in  the  colder  portions  of  our  country;  but  the  White 
Solid  is  crisper  and  more  delicately  flavored.  Cole’s  Superb 
Red,  Laing’s  Improved  Mammoth  Red,  Seymour’s  Superb  White, 
Boston  Market  and  Turkey  or  Prussian  are  the  kinds  to  be  preferred 
The  soil  best  suited  to  the  celery  plant  is  a moist,  rich  vege- 
table mold,  to  which  salt,  ashes,  and  lime  may  be  advantage- 
ously added,  as  special  manures.  The  animal  manures  used 
must  be  thoroughly  decomposed.  The  cultivation  of  celery 
embraces  three  distinct  operations : 

1.  Forwarding  the  Plants . — Sow  in  a hot-bed  from  the  first 
to  the  middle  of  March,  or  in  a warm  border  in  the  open 
ground,  at  several  different  times,  from  the  first  of  April  to  the 
tenth  of  May.  The  seed-beds  should  be  of  light  and  finely- 
pu.verized  soil.  Rake  in  the  seeds  lightly  and  regularly,  and 

5 


98 


The  Garden. 


in  dry  weather  water  moderately,  both  before  and  after  germ! 
nation.  Liquid  manures  are  very  beneficial.  Thin  out  the 
plants  to  half  an  inch  apart. 

2.  Stocking  or  Hardening . — When  the  plants  are  two  or 
three  inches  high,  prick  them  out,  at  successive  times,  into 
intermediate  beds,  three  or  four  inches  asunder,  watering  if 
the  weather  be  dry,  and  protecting  from  frost  with  boards  or 
mats,  if  necessary.  This  intermediate  bed  should  be  made 
very  rich  with  well-rotted  manure.  The  plants  that  remain 
in  the  seed-bed  should  be  shortened  by  cutting  off  their  tops 
occasionally,  to  make  them  grow  more  stout,  and  watered  fre- 
quently. Of  the  transplanted  ones,  those  intended  for  late 
celery  should  also  be  cut  off  nearly  to  the  crown  several  times, 
which  will  retard  them  and  make  them  grow  stout.  When  the 
plants  are  from  six  to  twelve  inches  high,  they  must  be  trans- 
planted into  trenches  previously  prepared  for  them. 

3.  Trench  Culture . — It  is  well  to  trench  the  compartment 
o(  the  garden  intended  for  the  permanent  culture  of  celery,  as 
this  process  turns  the  richest  soil  to  the  bottom  where  it  will 
be  most  needed  for  the  nurture  of  the  plant.  In  ground  thus 
prepared,  or  at  least  deeply  spaded  or  plowed,  mark  out  the 
trenches  a foot  wide,  and  from  three  to  three  and  a half  feet 
apart ; dig  out  each  trench  lengthwise,  ten  or  twelve  inches  in 
width,  and  a light  spit  deep,  that  is,  six  or  eight  inches.  Lay 
the  earth  dug  out  equally  on  each  side  of  the  trench ; put  at 
least  four  inches  of  very  rotten  dung  into  the  trench,  then  pare 
the  sides,  and  dig  the  dung  and  parings  with  several  inches  of 
the  loose  mold  at  the  bottom.  A pint  of  salt  to  every  fifty 
feet  of  trench,  thoroughly  mingled  with  the  soil,  is  recom- 
mended by  some,  and  must,  we  think,  prove  beneficial.  Trim 
the  tops  and  roots  of  the  plants,  and  then  set  them  in  single 
rows  along  the  middle  of  each  trench,  allowing  four  or  five 
inches  distance  from  plant  to  plant.  When  this  work  is  fin- 
ished, give  the  plants  water  in  plenty,  and  occasionally  water 
them  from  time  to  time,  if  the  weather  be  dry,  and  likewise 
lot  them  bo  shaded,  till  they  strike  root  and  begin  to  grow* 


The  Kitchen  Gakden. 


99 


Th^ir  after-culture  oonsists  in  stirring  the  soil  in  the  trench 
frequently  with  a small  hoe,  and  watering  copiously  in  dry 
weather.  About  the  middle  of  August  or  the  first  of  Septem- 
ber, you  may  begin  to  earth  up  your  plants  for  blanching.  Tie 
the  leaves  together,  or  hold  them  tight  with  one  hand,  while 
you  draw  the  earth,  which  must  have  been  finely  pulverized 
with  the  spade,  around  the  stems,  being  careful  not  to  cover 
the  heart  or  center  of  the  plant.  You  may  now  repeat  this 
operation  once  in  ten  days,  till  the  plants  are  fit  for  use ; but 
this  earthing-up  must  never  be  done  when  the  plants  are  in  the 
least  wet.  About  the  first  of  October  earth  up  firmly  and 
evenly,  and  with  a decided  slope  from  the  base,  nearly  to  the 
tops  of  the  leaves.  To  take  up  the  crop,  it  is  best  to  begin  at 
one  end  of  a row,  and  dig  clean  down  to  the  roots,  which  then 
loosen  with  a spade,  and  they  may  be  drawn  up  entire,  without 
breaking  the  stalks. 

To  preserve  this  plant  during  the  winter,  on  the  approach  of 
frost  take  up  a part  of  the  crop,  and  lay  it  under  sand  for  win- 
ter use.  That  left  in  the  beds  may  be  covered  with  litter,  to 
be  removed  in  mild  weather.  In  planting,  the  white  and  red 
sorts  may  conveniently  be  mixed  in  the  same  trench,  so  that 
only  one  trench  need  be  opened  to  obtain  both. 

6.  The  Radish — Raphanus  Sativus. 

The  radish  (Fr.  rave , Ger.  rittg)  is  a native  of  China.  Of 
the  numerous  varieties,  the  Scarlet  Short  Top  is  the  earliest 
and  best.  The  Early  Salmon,  Red  Turnip-Rooted,  White  Tur- 
nip-Rooted, White  Summer,  and  Yellow  Summer  are  all 
desirable  sorts.  For  supplying  the  table  in  winter,  the  Black 
Spanish  should  be  chosen. 

Any  deep,  rich  soil,  well  broken  up,  will  do  for  the  radish, 
but  for  early  crops  it  is  desirable  to  have  it  light,  dry,  and 
warm.  Sow  as  early  as  the  weather  will  permit,  and  for  a 
continued  supply  repeat  your  sowings  about  once  in  two  weeks 
through  the  season.  The  Black  Spanish  may  be  stored  in  the 
tollar,  and  will  keep  till  spring. 


100 


The  Garden*. 

7.  Horse  Radish — Cochlearia  Armor acia. 

The  horse-radish  grows  best  in  a rich,  moist  soil,  contiguous 
to  water,  hut  may  he  cultivated  in  almost  any  situation.  It  is  • 
propagated  hy  sets  from  the  root,  which  may  he  dropped  into 
holes  made  with  a dibble  fifteen  inches  deep,  in  soil  previously 
trenched  or  deeply  spaded.  Fill  up  the  holes  with  fine  earth. 
The  plants  should  stand  about  ten  inches  apart.  It  may  be 
planted  either  in  spring  or  in  November.  In  taking  up  the 
roots  for  use,  you  may  leave  a small  portion  at  the  bottom  to 
serve  as  a new  set.  In  the  fall,  lift  enough  for  winter  use,  and 
leave  the  rest  in  the  ground.  It  is  an  excellent  condiment. 
The  root  is  scraped  into  shreds,  or  grated  fine,  and  eaten  with 
vinegar. 

8.  Corn  $A.-LA.v—^Fedia  Olitoria . 

This  plant,  sometimes  called  lamb’s  lettuce,  is  a native  o* 
Europe.  It  is  in  use  to  some  extent  as  a spring  salad.  Sow 
from  the  tenth  to  the  twentieth  of  September,  in  shallow  drills 
six  inches  apart,  and  cover  lightly,  pressing  the  soil  with  a 
roller  or  a board.  Keep  it  clear  of  weeds,  and  in  November 
cover  with  straw,  and  pick  the  leaves  as  wanted.  If  the  win- 
ter prove  mild,  it  may  be  in  use  the  whole  season. 

VIII. — THE  CUCUMBER  FAMILY 
1.  The  Cucumber — Gucumis  Satims . 

The  cucumber  is  found  wild  in  almost  all  warm  countries, 
and  is  cultivated  all  over  the  world.  The  best  varieties  for 
forcing,  or  for  an  early  crop  in  the  open  air,  are  the  Russian 
and  the  Early  Frame.  London  Long  Green,  Long  Green  Tur- 
key, White  Spined  and  Underwood’s  Short  Prickley  are  good 
for  the  main  crop.  The  White  Spined  is  one  of  the  best  for  table 
use,  and  Underwood’s  Short  Prickly  for  pickling.  The  Gherkin, 
a French  variety,  is  also  much  prized  for  the  latter  purpose. 

A light  loam  is  best  for  the  cucumber,  but  it  will  grow  in 
almost  any  soil,  and  is  very  easily  cultivated.  Make  excava- 
tions for  your  hills  a foot  in  diameter  and  fifteen  inches  deeft 


The  Kitchen  Garden. 


101 


At  the  distance  of  six  feet  apart  each  way.  Fill  these  holes 
with  a rich  mixture  of  well  decayed  manure  and  light  soil, 
adding,  if  convenient,  a little  ashes,  bone-dust,  and  common 
salt.  Raise  the  hills  a little  above  the  level  of  the  ground,  by 
covering  the  manure  mixture  with  loam,  and  make  them 
slightly  concave  on  the  top.  Plant  about  the  first  of  May,  or 
so  soon  as  the  season  will  admit,  putting  eight  or  ten  seeds  in  a 
hill.  When  the  plants  have  made  rough  leaves,  thin  them  out 
to  three  in  a hill.  Kipping  off  the  points  of  the  vines  to  make 
them  branch  out  will  hasten  their  fruiting.  Stir  the  ground 
frequently,  and  keep  it  free  from  weeds. 

By  forcing  in  hot-beds,  cucumbers  may  be  had  in  March  or 
April ; but  few  except  professional  gardeners  care  to  undertake 
the  somewhat  delicate  operation.  They  may  be  much  for- 
warded, however,  with  little  trouble,  by  the  use  of  small  boxes 
covered  with  glass,  or  by  the  following  method : 

Make  a hole,  and  put  into  it  a little  hot  dung ; let  the  hole 
be  under  a warm  fence.  Put  six  inches  deep  of  fine  rich  earth 
on  the  dung.  Sow  a parcel  of  seeds  in  this  earth,  and  cover  at 
night  with  a bit  of  carpet  or  sail-cloth,  having  first  fixed  some 
hoops  over  this  little  bed.  Before  the  plants  show  the  rough 
leaf,  plant  two  into  a little  flower-pot,  and  fill  as  many  pots  in 
this  way  as  you  please.  Have  a larger  bed  ready  to  put  the 
pots  into,  and  covered  with  earth,  so  that  the  pots  may  be 
plunged  in  the  earth  up  to  their  tops.  Cover  this  bed  like  the 
last.  When  the  plants  have  got  two  rough  leaves  out,  they 
will  begin  to  make  a shoot  in  the  middle.  Pinch  that  short  off. 
Let  them  stand  in  this  bed  till  your  cucumbers  sown  in  the 
natural  ground  come  up  ; then  make  some  little  holes  in  good, 
rich  land,  and,  taking  a pot  at  a time,  turn  out  the  tall,  and  fix 
it  in  the  hole.  These  plants  will  bear  a month  sooner  than 
those  sown  in  the  natural  ground. 

The  second  week  in  July  is  sufficiently  early  to  plant  for  the 
fad  and  pickling  crop,  in  the  Northern  States.  In  the  South, 
the  late  planted  crops  are  apt  to  be  destroyed  by  the  melon** 
worm. 


102 


The  Garden. 


Cucumber  plants  being  climbers  by  means  of  their  tendrils* 
some  braachy  sticks  being  placed  to  any  advancing  runners, 
they  will  ascend,  and  produce  fruit  at  a distance  from  the 
ground,  of  a clean  growth,  free  from  spots,  and  well  flavored. 

2.  The  Melon — Cucumis  Melo. 

The  melon  is  a tropical  plant.  Our  finest  varieties  are  sup- 
posed to  have  come  from  Persia  and  Affghanistan.  In  the 
south  of  Europe  it  is  much  used  as  an  article  of  food  by  the 
lower  classes.  This  use  may  be  made  of  it  with  advantage  by 
all  classes  in  every  country  where  it  can  he  produced.  Its 
varieties  are  numerous  and  constantly  increasing.  The  com- 
mon mush-melon,  formerly  so  extensively  cultivated,  has  gen- 
erally given  way  to  newer  and  better  sorts,  among  which  the 
Green  Citron,  Monroe’s  Green  Flesh,  Nutmeg,  Christina  (very 
early),  White  Japan,  Prescott  Cantaloup,  (a  French  variety, 
Orange  Cantaloup,  Pine  Apple  and  Skillman’s  Fine  Netted  are 
much  esteemed.  [For  the  water-melon  which  belongs  to  a 
different  genus  of  the  same  natural  order,  see  the  next  section.] 

The  melon  should  have  the  same  soil  and  culture  as  the 
cucumber  (except  that  it  requires  less  moisture),  and  may  be 
forced  in  a hot-bed,  or  forwarded  by  means  of  the  glass-covered 
boxes  in  the  same  way.  Never  allow  more  than  three  plants 
to  grow  in  a hill.  Three  will  produce  more  fruit  than  six.  As 
the  fruit  appears  and  attains  the  size  of  a walnut,  place  under 
each  a piece  of  tile,  slate,  or  glass  to  protect  it  from  the  damp- 
ness of  the  earth,  and  assist  it  in  ripening  by  reflecting  the  rays 
of  the  sun.  - 


IX.— THE  PUMPKIN  FAMILY. 

1.  The  Pumpkin — Cucurbita  Pejpo . 

The  pumpkin  is  a native  of  India  and  the  Levant.  Numer- 
ous varieties  are  cultivated,  some  of  which,  originated  by 
means  of  crossings  with  the  squash,  can  hardly  be  distinguished 
from  that  vegetable.  The  Cashaw  and  Large  Cheese  are  the 
best  that  we  have  tested.  The  Valparaiso  is  said  to  be  a good 


The  Kitchen  Garden. 


103 


variety ; and  the  Honolulu,  from  the  Sandwich  Islands^  and  the 
Citronelle  de  Touraine , from  France,  are  new  varieties  which 
we  would  recommend  for  trial. 

The  pumpkin  will  grow  anywhere,  and  with  almost  any 
treatment.  The  culture  indicated  is  the  same  as  that  for  the 
melon  or  the  cucumber.  It  should  never  he  planted  in  a gar- 
den, if  one  has  other  ground  in  which  it  can  be  cultivated,  as 
it  will  he  sure  to  mix  with  and  contaminate  the  squashes, 
melons,  and  cucumbers.  Hew  England  farmers  often  raise  a 
large  crop  by  planting  it  with  their  field  corn. 

2.  The  Squash — Qucurbita  Melo  pepo. 

This  plant  forms  the  connecting  link  between  the  pumpkin 
and  the  melon.  It  originated  in  the  Levant.  The  best  summer 
varieties  are  the  Early  Bush  Scalloped,  and  the  early  Bush 
Crooknecked.  Of  fall  and  winter  sorts  the  Boston  Marrow 
is  the  best  that  has  had  a fair  trial  in  various  soils  and  climates. 
It  is  difficult  now,  however,  to  obtain  it  pure.  The  Hubbard, 
Custard,  Green  Striped  Bergen,  Egg-shaped,  Turban,  Honolulu, 
Mammoth  and  Yokohama  are  more  recent  and  esteemed  varie- 
ties; the  Hubbard  in  particular  being  deservedly  popular. 

The  soil  and  cultivation  required  are  the  same  as  for  pump- 
kins, melons,  and  cucumbers. 

3.  Vegetable  Marrow — Cucurbita  Succada. 

This  is  a species  of  gourd.  It  is  cooked  like  the  egg-plant 
when  young ; when  half  grown  is  used  as  squash ; and  when 
matured  is  used  for  pies.  Cultivated  the  same  as  the  squash. 

4.  The  Water  Melon — Cucurbita  Citrullus. 

The  water-melon  belongs  to  the  same  natural  family  or  order 
as  the  musk-melon  or  cantaloup,  but  to  a different  genus  or 
subdivision.  It  is  a native  of  the  tropics.  The  best  varieties 
are  the  Black  Spanish,  the  White  Spanish,  the  Orange,  the 
Mountain  Sweet,  the  Carolina,  the  Texas,  the  Sugar  White, 
the  Syrian,  and  the  Lawson.  The  Texas,  the  Sugar  White 


104 


The  Garden. 


(sometimes  called  Ice  Cream),  and  the  Syrian  are  all  new 
varieties — new  to  ns,  at  least.  We  have  tested  only  the  Texas, 
which  is  a superior  sort. 

The  best  soil  for  the  water-melon  is  a light,  sandy  loam. 
Animau.  manures,  well  decomposed,  bone-dust,  and  super-phos- 
phate of  lime  should  be  used  in  moderate  quantities.  Cultivate 
the  same  as  mush-melons  or  cucumbers.  If  grown  near  any 
other  melon,  squash,  pumpkin,  or  cucumber,  you  can  not  he 
sure  of  pure  seeds ; and  the  same  remarks  will  apply  to  the 
other  members  of  the  pumpkin  and  cucumber  families. 

X. — MISCELLANEOUS  OBJECTS  OF  CULTIVATION. 

1.  Indian  Coen — Zea  Mays. 

Every  garden  should  have  a few  rows  of  Indian  corn.  The 
best  garden  sorts  are  the  Extra  Early  and  Eight-Eowed  Sweet. 
Hew  varieties,  however,  are  constantly  being  produced. 

To  produce  a good  crop,  Indian  corn  requires  a good  soil, 
and  there  need  be  no  fear  of  giving  it  too  much  manure.  A 
handful  of  ashes  in  each  hill  will  benefit  the  crop.  Plant  in 
hills  three  feet  apart,  dropping  five  or  six  seeds  in  a hill,  hut 
thinning  out  to  three  or  four  at  the  first  hoeing.  If  sufficient 
manure  have  not  been  mixed  with  the  soil  on  plowing  or  dig- 
ging, put  a small  shovelful  in  each  hill.  Plant  so  soon  as  the 
season  will  permit,  and  make  successive  plantings  till  August, 
if  you  desire  a continuous  supply.  Hoe  frequently,  making 
broad,  flat  hills  in  earthing  up  the  plants.  Hever  plant  more 
than  one  kind  of  corn  in  the  same  garden  at  one  time,  as  it 
will  mix  and  deteriorate.  Change  your  seed  every  two  or 
three  years,  getting  it,  if  possible,  from  a more  northern  lati- 
tude. 

2.  The  Tomato — Solarium,  Lycopersicum. 

This  plant  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the  potato,  and, 
like  that  vegetable,  is  almost  universally  esteemed  and  culti- 
vated. It  is  a native  of  South  America.  There  are  several 
sorts— -yellow  and  red.  The  Large  Smooth  Ked  and  the  Pear- 


The  Kitchen  Garden. 


105 


Shaped  are  the  best  for  table  use ; but  the  Large  Red,  a scol- 
loped or  indented  variety,  is  preferred  for  marketing,  as  it 
grows  much  larger.  The  Large  Yellow  differs  in  flavor  from 
the  Red,  and  is  preferred  by  some.  It  comes  into  use  some- 
what earlier  than  the  other  sorts.  It  is  much  used  for  pre- 
serves. The  Red  Cherry-Shaped  and  the  Yellow  Cherry- 
Shaped  are  beautiful  varieties,  much  used  for  pickling  and 
preserving. 

A light,  loamy,  and  moderately  rich  soil  is  best  for  the 
tomato.  To  have  early  tomatoes,  the  plants  must  be  started 
in  hot-beds  in  March.  Sow  the  seeds  thinly,  or  thin  out  the 
plants  soon  after  they  come  up.  As  they  advance  in  growth, 
they  may  be  transplanted  into  a cold  frame  or  walled  pit,  pro- 
tected by  glass,  where  they  may  stand  three  inches  apart  to 
harden  for  final  transplanting  into  the  open  air ; or  they  may 
remain  in  the  hot-bed  till  settled  warm  weather — from  the 
middle  to  the  end  of  May  in  this  latitude — when  they  may  be 
planted  out  into  a warm,  sheltered  situation  in  the  open  air. 

Those  who  have  no  hot-bed  or  pit  may  very  easily  forward 
a few  plants  in  a large  pot  or  box  of  rich  earth  placed  in  the 
kitchen  window,  sowing  the  seeds  in  it  from  the  middle  of 
March  to  the  first  of  April.  Two  or  three  weeks  may  be 
gained  in  this  way  over  those  planted  in  the  open  air. 

For  early  tomatoes,  we  form  conical  hills,  a foot  or  more  in 
height,  and  three  feet  apart,  with  a little  well-rotted  manure 
in  the  center.  Into  a little  crater-like  excavation  in  the  sum- 
mits of  these  hills  we  set  the  plants,  which  should  be  taken  up 
with  a trowel  in  such  a way  as  not  to  check  their  growth.  A 
still  better  way  is  to  sow  the  seeds  in  small  pots,  and  in  trans- 
planting to  transfer  the  whole  ball  of  earth  from  the  pot  to  the 
bill.  The  advantage  of  the  elevated  hills  is,  that  the  earth 
around  the  roots  is  more  readily  and  thoroughly  warmed  by 
the  heat  of  the  sun.  For  a late  crop,  or  for  a hot,  dry  climate, 
this  plan  is  not  to  be  recommended. 

In  the  South  a plenty  of  tomatoes  may  be  raised  from  self- 
sown  sefed,  which  will  spring  up  in  the  garden,  and  requir# 

5* 


106 


The  Garden. 


little  care ; but  if  they  are  wanted  earlier,  the  plants  may  be 
forwarded  in  a frame,  or  glass-covered  boxes,  sowing  in  Febru- 
ary or  the  first  of  March,  and  transplanting  when  the  frosts 
are  over. 

The  earliest  tomato  plants  should  be  shortened  by  taking  off 
a few  inches  of  their  tops,  so  soon  as  they  have  set  their  first 
fruit,  which  will  cause  it  to  ripen  more  rapidly.  Stir  the  soil 
frequently,  and  keep  it  free  from  weeds.  Support  the  plants 
with  branches  or  a little  trellis,  as  you  would  peas,  to  keep  the 
fruit  from  the  ground.  The  plants,  too,  when  supported,  run 
less  to  vines,  and  are  much  more  fruitful.  One  dozen  plants 
properly  supported  will  yield  more  and  better  fruit  than  three 
times  that  number  will  when  allowed  to  rest  on  the  ground. 

3.  The  Egg  Plant — Solarium  Melongena. 

This  plant  also,  as  may  be  seen  by  its  botanical  name,  belongs 
to  the  potato  family.  It  is  a native  of  Africa.  One  of  its 
varieties  bears  a white  fruit  resembling  an  egg,  whence  its 
name ; but  the  purple  varieties  only  are  used  in  cookery.  Of 
these  the  Large  Prickley  Purple  produces  the  largest  fruit,  but 
the  Long  Purple  is  superior  in  flavor,  and  should  be  preferred 
for  family  use.  They  may  be  cultivated  in  the  same  way  as 
tomatoes,  but  are  rather  more  sensitive  and  tender.  They  may 
be  sowed  in  April  or  the  first  of  May  in  the  open  air,  selecting 
a warm  border,  with  a southern  exposure. 

The  fruit  is  fit  for  use  when  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter, 
and  continues  so  till  the  seeds  begin  to  change  color.  It  is  cut 
in  thin  slices,  and  fried,  and  is  also  sometimes  used  in  stews  and 
soups. 

4.  The  Strawberry  Tomato — Phy sails  Edulis. 

This  is  a newly -introduced  annual  plant,  producing  fruit  of  the 
size  of  a cherry.  It  is  excellent  eaten  raw,  made  into  pies  or 
simply  stewed.  We  hame  tried  it  and  esteem  it  highly.  It  is 
cultivated  the  same  as  the  tomato. 


The  Kitchen  Garden. 


107 


5.  The  Pepper — Capsicum  Annum . 

Tlie  pepper  is  a tropical  plant,  but  may  easily  be  matured  iu 
*ne  open  air  in  this  climate.  It  is  better,  however,  to  start  the 
plants  in  a hot-bed,  if  practicable,  and  transplant  in  May  or 
June.  A warm  situation  and  a light,  rich  soil  suit  it  best. 
The  plants  should  stand  in  rows  eighteen  inches  apart,  and  a 
foot  apart  in  the  rows.  Earth  them  up  a little  in  cultivation. 
The  Bell  or  Sweet  is  the  best  for  pickling.  The  Cayenne  is 
more  used  in  its  ripe  state  as  a seasoning. 

6.  Okra — Hibiscus  Esculentus. 

This  vegetable,  which  belongs  to  the  natural  family  of  the 
cotton  plant,  was  introduced  from  the  West  Indies,  and  is  much 
cultivated  in  the  Southern  States.  It  is  often  called  gumbo 
(Fr.  gombo ),  and  is  used  as  an  ingredient  in  stews  and  soups. 
It  is  cultivated  to  a considerable  extent  in  Mew  Jersey,  and 
may  be  produced  still  farther  north.  A light,  dry  soil  is  best 
suited  to  it.  Plant  in  drills  three  feet  apart,  scattering  the 
seeds  sparsely,  and  thin  out  to  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the 
drill.  It  requires  careful  culture  in  a northern  climate.  Hoe 
very  frequently,  and  keep  the  ground  free  from  weeds.  The 
pods  must  be  gathered  while  quite  green  and  tender.  They 
may  be  cut  into  thin  slices  and  dried  for  winter  use. 

7.  Rhubarb — Rheum  Rhaponticum. 

Rhubarb,  sometimes  called  pie-plant,  although  it  has  been 
cultivated  to  a small  extent  for  centuries,  and  used  for  medic- 
inal purposes,  has  not  till  quite  recently  been  popularly  appre- 
ciated. It  certainly  deserves  a place  in  every  garden.  It  is  a 
native  of  Asia.  Myatt’s  Victoria,  Myatt’s  Linnaeus,  Buist’s 
Early  Red,  and  Downing’s  Colossal  are  all  excellent  varieties. 

The  soil  for  rhubarb  should  be  a light  loam,  rich,  and  moder- 
ately moist.  Bone-dust  and  guano  are  excellent  special  ma- 
nures for  it. 

Rhubarb  is  propagated  either  by  seeds  or  by  division  of  the 
roots  The  latter  is,  in  ordinary  cases,  the  preferable  methocL 


108 


The  Garden. 


From  ten  to  twenty  plants  will  be  sufficient  for  a moderate 
family,  and  these  may  be  had  by  dividing  one  or  two  good 
roots,  leaving  an  eye  on  each  set.  The  ground  should  be  pre- 
pared in  October,  by  spading  it  at  least  eighteen  inches  deep, 
digging  in  a large  quantity  of  well-rotted  manure,  and  breaking 
it  up  thoroughly  in  the  process.  Allow  it  to  settle,  and  then 
plant  out  your  sets  two  feet  apart  in  the  row,  and  four  feet 
between  the  rows.  The  crowns  or  eyes  of  the  sets  should  bo 
about  two  inches  below  the  surface,  and  should  be  immediately 
covered  with  four  or  five  inches  of  litter,  leaves,  or  straw,  to 
prevent  the  frost  from  throwing  them  out  during  the  winter. 
In  this  way  a crop  may  be  obtained  the  first  year  after  plant- 
ing. The  only  after-culture  required  is  to  cover  the  ground 
with  a few  inches  of  manure  every  fall,  digging  it  in  with  a 
fork  in  the  spring,  and  keeping  the  ground  free  from  weeds. 
If  you  wish  to  raise  it  from  the  seed,  sow  in  the  spring,  trans- 
plant in  the  fall,  and  treat  as  just  directed.  You  will  get  new 
varieties.  It  will  be  ready  for  the  table  in  three  years. 

To  make  the  edible  leaf-stems  of  your  rhubarb  grow  long 
and  tender,  place  barrels,  pots,  boxes,  and  so  forth  over  them 
when  they  begin  to  grow  in  the  spring ; but  the  air  and  light 
should  not  be  entirely  excluded,  unless  you  wish  to  obtain  a 
very  mild  flavor. 

Rhubarb  may  easily  be  forced  by  inverting  boxes,  pots,  oi 
half  barrels  over  the  plants  in  the  autumn,  and  afterward  cov- 
ering the  whole  with  leaves  and  hot  stable  manure.  The 
boxes,  etc.,  should  be  placed  over  the  plants  before  the  ground 
shall  be  frozen,  covering  the  ground  with  eight  or  ten  inches 
of  litter.  The  mixture  of  leaves  and  manure  may  be  applied 
about  the  middle  of  January  or  the  first  of  February.  By 
merely  covering  your  plants  with  six  or  eight  inches  of  litter, 
leaves,  or  almost  any  dry  material,  you  may  forward  them  from 
seven  to  ten  days,  without  further  trouble. 

To  gather,  remove  a little  earth,  and,  bending  down  the  leaf 
you  would  remove,  slip  it  off  from  the  crown  without  breaking 
or  using  the  knife.  The  stalks  are  fit  to  use  when  the  leaf  is 


The  Kitchen  Gaedew. 


109 


half  expanded.  A larger,  but  inferior  produce  is  obtained  by 
letting  them  remain  till  in  full  expansion,  as  is  practiced  by  the 
market-gardeners. 

For  use,  peel  the  stem,  and  cut  it  into  thin  slices,  and  pre- 
pare as  you  would  apples,  for  pies,  tarts,  or  sauce.  The 
English  gardeners  say,  however,  that  it  should  be  grown  so 
quickly  and  be  so  tender  as  to  require  no  peeling. 

8.  Paksley — Apium  Petroselinum . 

Parsley  is  but  little  cultivated  in  this  country,  and  is  princi- 
pally used  for  garnishing.  It  is  a native  of  Sardinia.  The 
curled  variety  is  most  worthy  of  cultivation.  Sow  in  April, 
in  drills  half  an  inch  deep.  It  may  form  an  edging  around 
beds,  borders,  or  compartments.  From  the  long  time  the  seed 
lies  in  the  ground  without  germinating,  it  has  been  said  that  it 
goes  nine  times  to  the  devil  and  back  before  it  comes  up! 
These  journeys  require  ordinarily  a month  or  more ; but  by 
soaking  the  seed  twenty -four  hours  before  sowing,  the  process 
is  somewhat  hastened.  When  the  plants  are  three  or  four 
inches  high,  thin  them  out  to  six  inches  apart.  With  a little 
protection,  it  will  grow  all  winter  in  this  climate.  It  is 
esteemed  by  many  as  a seasoning  for  stews  and  soups. 

XI. — SWEET  HEKBS,  ETC. 

Of  the  sweet  herbs  and  medicinal  plants  more  or  less  culti- 
vated in  gardens,  a brief  mention  may  properly  be  here  made. 
They  are  generally  planted  in  borders,  and,  to  secure  their 
peculiar  virtues  in  perfection , should  not  be  manured.  Com- 
mon garden  soil  is  sufficiently  rich  for  most  of  them.  As  a 
general  rule,  they  are  gathered  when  in  bloom,  and  carefully 
dried  in  the  shade. 

1.  Shrubby  Plants.  — Sage  (/ Salvia  officinalis)  ; Winter 
Savor yiSaturica  montand) ; Rosemary  (Eosmarius  officinalis) ; 
Thyme  ( Thymus  vulgaris ) ; Rue  (. Euta  graveolens) ; Wormwood 
( Artimesia  absinthium) ; Southernwood  {Artimesia  abrotco 
num) ; Lavendei  ( Lavendula  spied)  ; Hyssop,  iTIyssopus  ( offici 


110 


The  Garden. 


nalis).  The  foregoing  are  all  propagated  by  dividing  the  root3 
or  by  cuttings,  and  require  little  cultivation. 

2.  Perennial  Herbaceous  Plants . — Peppermint  (. Mentha 
piperita)-,  Spearmint  {Mentha  viridis) ; Pennyroyal  {Mentha 
pulegium) ; Balm  {Melissa  officinalis) ; Tansy  {Tanacetum  vul- 
gar  is) ; Burnet  {Poterium  sanguisorba) ; Chamomile  {Anthemis 
nobilis) ; Elecampane  {Iluna  helinium) ; Fennel  {Anethum 
fceniculum)  ; Thoroughwort  or  Boneset  {Eupatorium  perfolia- 
turri) ; Liquorice  {Glycirrhiza  glabra).  These  are  all  increased 
by  parting  the  roots. 

3.  Biennial  and  Annual  Plants. — Caraway  {Carum  carni)  ; 
Coriander  {Coriandrum  sativum );  Dill  {Anethum  graveolens) ; 
Anise  {Pimpinella  anisum) ; Sweet  Marjoram  {Origonum  ma- 
jorana );  Summer  Savory  {Saturega  hortensis) ; Sweet  Basil 
{Ocimum  basilicum) ; Bush  Basil  {Ocimum  minimum) ; Angelica 
{Angelica  archangelica) ; Borage  {Borago  officinalis)-,  Hore- 
hound  {Marrubium  vulgare).  All  propagated  by  so  wing  the 
seed). 


The  Fruit  Garden. 


Ill 


VII. 

THE  FRUIT  GARDEN. 


Bat  TOrwara  i®  the  name  of  God,  graffe,  set,  plant,  and  nourish  up  trees  tn  every  comer  of 
your  grinds,  tne  lat*»ur  is  small,  the  cost  is  nothing,  the  commoditie  is  great,  yourselves 
•hall  have  plenty,  tW  poore  shall  have  somewhat  in  time  of  want  to  relieve  their  necessitie, 
a»d  God  shall  reward  your  good  mindes  and  diligence. — Gerarde. 

I. — A HINT  OR  TWO. 

HE  lamented  Downing  says : “ He  who  owns 
a rood  of  proper  land  in  this  country,  and, 
in  the  face  of  the  pomonal  riches  of  the 
day,  raises  only  crabs  and  choke-pears, 
deserves  to  lose  the  respect  of  all  sensible 
men.  Yet  there  are  many  in  utter  igno- 
rance of  most  of  the  delicious  fruits  of  modern  days — 
who  seem  to  live  under  some  ban  of  expulsion  from 
all  the  fair  and  goodly  productions  of  the  garden.” 

Such  persons  are  still  to  be  found,  but  their  number 
is  rapidly  decreasing ; and  there  are  few  who  will  not 
thoughtfully  heed  the  quaint  exhortation  which  we  have  chosen 
for  the  motto  of  this  chapter. 

After  what  we  have  said  in  our  third  and  fifth  chapters 
(which  see),  but  few  introductory  hints  will  here  be  necessary. 
Let  it  be  remembered  that  the  plot  set  apart  for  the  fruit  gar- 
den should  be  thoroughly  prepared  before  you  commence 
planting ; that  the  soil  should  be  very  deep  (not  less  than  two 
feet),  and  thoroughly  broken  up ; that  it  must  be  moderately 
rich ; that  it  should  be  well  drained  if  the  nature  of  the  soil 
require  it,  and  that  a careful  attention  to  the  directions  we 
have  given  under  the  heads  of  transplanting,  budding,  grafting, 
pruning,  etc.,  are  essential  to  success.  Specific  directions, 
when  necessary,  will  be  given  under  the  name  of  each  species. 


112 


The  Garden. 


The  best  manure  for  fruit-trees  in  general  is  composed  of 
about  equal  parts  of  meadow  mud,  muck,  or  peaty  earth,  and 
common  stable  manure.  A small  quantity  of  wood -ashes,  say 
four  bushels  to  a cart-load  of  manure,  and  charcoal-dust  in 
about  the  same  ratio,  may  be  intermixed  with  this  composition 
to  great  advantage.  This  manure  should  be  prepared  and  well 
worked  over  several  months  before  using.  Half  a peck  of 
bone-dust  and  a little  lime,  well  mixed  with  the  soil  when  set- 
ting the  tree,  or  from  a peck  to  a bushel  of  old  broken  bones, 
put  into  the  bottom  of  the  hole  before  setting,  will  be  of  great 
benefit  for  years.  The  general  manuring  of  a fruit  garden 
should  be  performed  in  autumn ; and  the  holes  for  setting  out 
the  trees  in  the  spring  may  be  dug  and  filled  with  compost  and 
earth  at  the  same  time  with  decided  advantage.  Eotted  chips 
make  an  excellent  manure  for  fruit-trees,  and  may  be  applied 
either  in  the  holes  or  as  a top-dressing. 

Having  set  out  your  trees  properly  in  well-prepared  ground, 
the  work  is  rightly  begun — that  is  all.  If  you  stop  here,  you 
might  as  well  have  never  commenced — nay,  better ; for  in  that 
case  you  would  have  saved  the  cost  of  the  trees  and  the  labor 
of  preparing^the  soil. 

After  your  trees  are  planted,  it  is  absolutely  essential  that 
the  ground  around  them  shall  be  Jcept  loose  and  mellow  by  culti- 
vation. Cultivate  potatoes  or  some  other  low-growing  crop 
between  the  rows  of  trees,  keeping  an  area  of  more  than  the 
diameter  of  the  head  around  each  tree  clear  from  both  the 
crop  and  the  weeds.  So  far  as  the  tree’s  roots  extend,  the 
ground  belongs  to  them,  but  it  must  be  kept  well  stirred. 

Newly  transplanted  trees  sometimes,  especially  if  the  season 
be  uncommonly  dry,  require  watering;  but  a little  water 
poured  on  the  surface  never  reaches  the  roots,  and,  by  causing 
the  ground  to  bake,  does  more  harm  than  good.  To  produce 
the  desired  result,  take  off  a few  inches  of  the  surface  above 
the  roots,  apply  the  water,  and  then  replace  the  earth. 

Mulching  is  exceedingly  beneficial  to  young  fruit-trees.  A 
sufficient  quantity  of  straw,  litter,  leaves,  or  tan-bark  applied 


The  Feuit  Garden. 


113 


fn  a circle  covering  the  whole  area  of  the  roots  will  tend  to 
retain  the  moisture,  and  render  watering,  in  ordinary  cases, 
unnecessary.  In  winter,  where  the  climate  is  severe,  it  is  still 
more  useful,  and  often  saves  young  trees  from  entire  destruc- 
tion hy  frost.  A small  space  immediately  about  the  trunk  may 
be  left  uncovered,  as  it  might  harbor  mice. 

Every  spring,  wash  the  bodies  of  your  young  trees  with  soft 
soap,  or  one  of  the  following  preparations  : 

1.  Dissolve  one  pound  of  potash  in  two  gallons  and  one 
half  of  water,  and  then  apply  with  a flat  varnish-hrush  to  the 
limbs  and  trunks  of  the  trees.  A varnish-hrush  is  best,  as  the 
bristles  are  held  together  by  tin  bands  on  them,  and  not  tied 
together  with  strings,  as  paint-brushes  are,  which  the  potash 
soon  cuts  through,  and  the  brush  falls  to  pieces. 

2.  Mix  fresh  cow-dung  with  urine  and  soap-suds,  and  with 
the  mixture  wash  over  the  stems  and  branches  of  the  trees  as 
you  would  your  room  with  whitewash,  first  cutting  off  the 
cankery  parts,  and  scraping  the  moss  and  rough  bark  off  the 
trunks  of  the  trees  before  applying  it.  This  is  particularly 
applicable  to  large  and  old  trees.  It  will  destroy  the  eggs  of 
insects,  and  prevent  moss  growing  on  the  trunks. 

The  following,  it  is  said,  will  prevent  rabbits  [and  probably 
mice]  from  girdling  fruit-trees : 

Make  a solution  of,  say  half  a pound  of  tobacco  to  three 
gallons  of  water.  Mix  with  clay,  a little  lime,  a little  fresh 
cow-dung,  and  an  ounce  or  two  of  glue  or  paste.  Thicken  to 
the  consistency  of  thick  whitewash,  and  put  on  with  a brush. 

The  following  is  Bridgeman’s  recipe  for  causing  trees  to 
thrive : 

“ The  ground  where  they  are  planted  must  be  kept  well  cul- 
tivated. Young  trees  will  not  thrive  if  the  grass  be  permitted 
to  form  a sod  around  them ; and  if  it  should  be  necessary  to  plant 
them  in  grass  grounds,  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  earth 
mellow  and  free  from  grass  for  three  or  four  feet  distant  around 
them,  and  every  autumn  some  well-rotted  manure  should  be 
dug  in  around  each  tree,  and  every  spring  the  bodies  of  the 


114 


The  Garden. 


trees  washed  or  brushed  over  with  common  soft-soap,  undiluted 
with  water.  This  treatment  will  give  a thriftiness  to  the  trees, 
surpassing  the  expectation  of  any  one  who  has  not  witnessed 
its  effect.” 

II. POMACEOUS  FRUITS. 

1.  The  Apple — Pyrus  Malm . 

All  the  varieties  of  the  apple  cultivated  in  this  country  have 
originated  from  the  small,  acid  crab-apple  of  Europe.  When 
cultivated  with  the  same  care  and  skill,  it  seems  to  succeed 
even  better  here  than  in  its  native  localities.  It  is  well  worthy 
to  stand  the  head  of  all  the  fruits  of  temperate  climates. 

The  apple-tree  requires  so  much  room  that,  in  an  ordinary 
garden,  we  must  confine  ourselves  to  a small  number.  The 
choice  of  our  varieties,  then,  becomes  an  important  affair, 
and,  we  may  add,  a difficult  one.  1.  In  the  first  place,  the 
varieties  are  very  numerous,  being  numbered  by  thousands  ; 
2.  Sorts  which  are  considered  u best  ” in  one  section  of  our 
widely  extended  country,  often  prove  inferior  or  ^worthless  in 
another ; 3.  Soil,  seasons,  and  modes  of  cultivation  modify 
them  greatly  in  the  same  climate ; 4.  Many  new  and  appa- 
rently excellent  varieties  have  not  yet  been  sufficiently  tested 
in  reference  to  their  adaptation  to  general  cultivation ; 5. 
Tastes  differ  widely  in  reference  to  flavors  ; 6.  Some  sorts  are 
known  by  from  three  to  twenty  different  names — every  neigh- 
borhood, almost,  having  its  local  appellation  for  them.  The 
reader  must  make  the  necessary  allowances,  as  the  circum- 
stances of  his  locality,  soil,  and  climate,  and  his  own  expe- 
rience and  observation  may  dictate ; and  none  but  the  best 
should  be  allowed  to  occupy  the  limited  space  of  a fruit  gar- 
den. 

Apple-trees  should  be  planted  thirty  feet  apart  each  way. 
As  special  manure,  lime  and  ashes  are  indicated.  About  half 
a peck  of  each,  applied  annually  to  each  tree,  will  be  useful. 

In  common  management,  apple-trees  in  general  bear  only 
alternate  years,  which  are  called  their  bearing  years  ; but  by 


The  Fruit  Garden. 


115 


thinning  out  half  the  blossoms  on  the  bearing  year,  you  may 
easily  have  about  an  equal  quantity  of  fruit  every  season.  The 
bearing  year  may  be  entirely  changed,  by  taking  off  all  the 
blossoms  or  young  fruit  on  that  year,  and  allowing  them  to 
remain  on  the  year  which  we  wish  to  make  the  bearing  one. 

To  preserve  winter  apples,  gather  them  carefully  by  hand 
on  a dry  day ; lay  them  gently  by  hand  twelve  or  fourteen 
inches  deep  on  the  floor  of  a cool,  dry  room,  and  let  them  dry 
and  season  there  for  three  weeks.  Then  carefully  take  them 
up,  on  a clear  day,  and  pack  them  by  hand  in  clean,  dry  bar- 
rels, filling  the  barrels  so  full  that  a gentle  pressure  will  be 
necessary  in  order  to  head  them  up. 

Smaller  quantities  may  be  put  up  in  common,  tight,  wooden 
buckets.  The  best  place  for  keeping  them  is  a dry,  airy 
room  or  cellar,  of  which  the  temperature  ranges  from  35°  to 
45°  Fahr. 

Thomas  recommends  packing  alternate  layers  of  apples  and 
dry  chaff  mixed  with  a small  portion  of  dry,  pulverized  lime. 
Apples  for  exportation  are  often  wrapped  each  one  separately 
in  clean,  soft,  coarse  paper,  like  oranges,  and  then  put  up  in 
boxes  or  barrels,  as  above  directed. 

2.  The  Pear — Pyrus  Communis. 

The  pear  is  second  only  to  the  apple  in  general  utility,  and 
superior  to  that  fruit  in  delicacy  and  flavor.  The  pear  was 
cultivated  so  long  ago  as  the  earliest  times  of  the  Romans, 
but  it  is  only  in  modern  times  that  it  has  reached  a high 
degree  of  those  delicious  qualities  for  which  it  is  now  so 
much  esteemed. 

The  best  soil  for  the  pear  is  a strong  loam  on  a dry  subsoil. 
It  requires  the  same  manure  as  the  apple,  with  the  addition 
of  a larger  quantity  of  ashes  or  potash  in  some  other  form. 
Set  standard  trees  twenty  feet  apart  each  way ; dwarfs  from 
ten  to  twelve.  Give  bearing  trees  a moderate  top-dressing  of 
manure  every  autumn.  Pear-trees  require  comparatively  little 
pruning. 


116 


The  Garden. 


To  dwarf  the  pear,  it  is  grafted  on  Anger’s  quince  stocks. 
The  fruit  produced  by  trees  thus  grafted  is  usually  better  than 
that  of  those  on  the  pear  stock.  They  also  come  into  bearing 
sooner,  and  take  up  less  room  in  the  garden ; but  they  are  not 
so  long-lived  as  on  the  pear.  Quince-bottomed  pear-trees 
must  be  very  carefully  cultivated.  They  will  not  bear  neglect. 
They  should  be  headed-in  more  or  less  every  year. 

Winter  pears  are  all  necessarily  ripened  in  the  house  ; and 
nearly  all  summer  pears,  and  a very  large  proportion  of  the 
autumn  varieties,  are  greatly  improved  by  ripening  them  in 
the  house  also.  As  a general  rule,  take  summer  and  early 
autumn  pears  from  the  trees,  just  when  some  of  the  earlier 
full-grown  specimens  begin  to  ripen.  Gather  them  carefully 
Tby  hand  on  a dry  day,  spread  them  on  the  shelves  of  your 
fruit-room , or  upon  the  floor  of  a cool,  dry  chamber.  Here 
they  will  ripen  by  degrees,  and  without  further  care. 

Late  autumn  and  winter  pears  should  also  be  gathered  very 
carefully  by  hand,  in  dry  weather.  Put  them  away  very  care- 
fully, so  as  not  to  bruise  or  indent  them  in  the  least,  in  tight, 
clean  wooden  boxes,  buckets,  or  barrels,  and  keep  them  in  a 
cool,  dry,  airy  room  or  cellar,  of  which  the  temperature  shall 
"be  from  about  38°  to  45°  Fahr.  Examine  them  occasionally, 
and  if  they  should  be  sweating,  take  them  out  carefully,  and 
dry  them  on  the  floor,  removing  any  that  may  have  begun  to 
decay,  and  re-packing  them  as  before.  About  ten  days  before 
their  usual  time  of  ripening,  bring  them  into  a warm  room. 
The  result  of  this  process  will  surprise,  as  well  as  gratify,  one 
who  has  never  tried  it. 

3.  The  Quince — Gydonia  Vulgaris . 

This  tree  is  a native  of  Germany.  It  was  cultivated,  and 
its  fruit  much  esteemed  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  It  was 
used  by  them,  as  by  the  moderns,  for  preserving. 

The  quince  is  easily  propagated  from  seeds,  layers,  or  cut- 
tings. A moist,  strong  soil  suits  the  quince,  as  it  grows  natu- 
rally along  the  borders  of  streams.  Set  the  trees  ten  feet 


The  Fruit  Garden. 


117 


apart,  and  give  them  the  same  cultivation  as  the  apple  and 
the  pear.  Little  pruning  is  required,  except  to  improve  the 
form  of  the  head. 

III. STONE  FRUITS. 

1.  TnE  Peach — Persica  Vulgaris. 

The  peach  derives  its  name  from  Persia  (It.  persica , Fr. 
pecker ),  from  which  country  it  originated.  It  is  now  culti- 
vated to  a greater  extent  in  the  United  States  than  in  any 
other  country  in  the  world.  In  its  perfection,  it  does  not 
yield  the  palm  to  any  other  fruit.  A Seckel  would  hardly 
tempt  us  to  lay  aside  a Rareripe. 

Set  peach-trees  about  sixteen  feet  apart  each  way.  Bone- 
dust  and  wood-ashes  are  the  special  manures  most  likely  to 
be  serviceable  to  them. 

The  peach  is  somewhat  dwarfed  and  rendered  hardier  in  a 
northern  climate  by  grafting  on  a plum  stock.  It  requires 
but  little  pruning,  except  “ shortening-in,”  which  should  be 
done  early  in  the  spring  every  year  so  long  as  the  tree  lives. 
Cut  off  half  the  last  year’s  growth  over  the  whole  outside  of 
the  tree.  This  method  will  increase  the  size  and  value  of  the 
fruit,  and  cause  the  tree  to  live  and  continue  in  bearing  seve- 
ral years  longer  than  under  the  old  system. 

Every  one  who  cultivates  peaches  should  preserve  a quan- 
tity for  winter  use,  either  in  air-tight  cans  or  by  drying. 

2.  The  Nectarine — Persica  Vulgaris  Lams. 

The  nectarine  is  only  a distinct  accidental  variety  of  the 
peach  with  a smooth  skin.  The  well-known  Boston  Nectar- 
ine originated  from  a peach-stone.  Boil,  manure,  and  culture 
are  the  same  as  for  the  peach.  It  is  a beautiful  fruit,  but,  on 
account  of  its  liability  to  be  destroyed  by  the  curculio,  is  lit- 
tle cultivated.  Good  crops  are  rare. 

3.  The  Apricot — Armeniaca  Vulgaris. 

The  apricot  is  native  of  central  Asia,  and  is  the  most  beau- 
tiful of  all  the  stone  fruits.  It  ripens  about  midsummer,  or 


118 


The  Gaeden. 


immediately  after  the  cherries.  In  this  country  it  may  be 
cultivated  in  the  open  air,  in  almost  any  locality  south  of 
Massachusetts.  Like  the  nectarine,  it  is  very  liable  to  be  de- 
stroyed by  the  curculio.  Let  the  poultry  or  pigs  have  access 
to  the  trees  when  the  fruit  begins  to  drop. 

The  apricot  is  generally  budded  on  the  plum  stock.  It 
should  be  placed  on  a north,  east,  or  west  aspect,  and  be  pro- 
tected by  a wall  or  fence.  It  requires  no  pruning. 

4.  The  Plum — Prunus  Domestica. 

Several  varieties  of  the  plum  are  found  growing  wild  in 
this  country,  but  the  original  parent  of  most  of  our  culti- 
vated sorts  is  supposed  to  have  been  brought  from  Asia. 
The  varieties  are  numerous.  The  Green  Gage,  an  old  Eng- 
lish plum,  still  keeps  its  place,  in  popular  estimation,  at  the 
head  of  the  list. 

The  best  soil  for  the  plum  is  a strong  loam  on  a dry  sub- 
soil, but  it  will  grow  in  any  tolerably  fertile  soil.  An  annual 
top-dressing  of  common  salt  will  be  found  very  useful,  not 
only  promoting  the  growth  of  the  tree,  but  driving  away  most 
of  the  insects  to  which  it  is  liable.  The  tree  should  be  set 
about  sixteen  feet  apart  each  way.  The  great  enemy  of  the 
plum  is  the  curculio,  against  which  you  must  wage  a war  of 
extermination. 

The  plum  is  generally  propagated  by  budding,  but  may  be 
grafted  with  success,  if  the  operation  be  skillfully  and  care- 
fully performed.  Little  pruning  is  necessary,  except  when  the 
tree  is  young,  to  improve  the  form  of  the  head. 

5.  The  Cherry — Gerasus  Sylvestris  et  G.  Vulgaris. 

The  cherry  was  brought  originally  from  Asia  by  the  Roman 
general  Lucullus,  and  has  been  in  cultivation  in  Europe  for 
more  than  eighteen  hundred  years.  It  was  introduced  into 
America  on  the  first  settlement  of  the  country. 

All  sorts  of  cherries  are  generally  worked  on  Black  Maz- 
zard  stocks.  They  may  be  cither  budded  or  grafted.  Set  the 


The  Fruit  Garden. 


119 


trees  from  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  apart,  and  cultivate  the  same 
as  the  plum. 


6.  The  Olive — Olea  Europea. 

The  olive  should  be  more  widely  cultivated  in  the  Southern 
States.  The  seaboard  States  of  the 
South  are  well  adapted  to  its  cul- 
ture. It  will  thrive  farther  north 
than  the  orange.  It  is  a low  ever- 
green tree,  and  commences  bearing 
in  five  or  six  years  after  being 
planted.  The  oil  is  made  by  crush- 
ing the  fruit  to  a paste,  and  pressing 
it  through  a coarse,  hempen  bag, 
into  hot  water,  from  the  surface  of 
which  the  oil  is  skimmed  off.  The 
common  European  olive  is  the  best  variety  for  general  culti- 
vation. It  is  propagated  by  means  of  little  knots  or  tumors, 
which  form  on  the  bark  of  the  trunk,  and  are  easily  cut  out 
with  a penknife.  These  are  planted  in  the  soil  like  bulbs. 
It  may  also  be  propagated  by  cuttings  or  seeds. 


OLIVE  BRANCH  AND  PETTIT. 


IY. THE  ORANGE  FAMILY. 

1.  The  Orange — Citrus  Aurantum. 

This  delicious  tropical  fruit  is  successfully  cultivated  in  Flor- 
ida, and  to  some  extent  in  Louisiana,  Texas,  Georgia,  South 
Carolina,  and  other  Southern  States.  With  only  slight  pro- 
tection, it  will  succeed  so  far  north  as  Baltimore.  Of  the 
sweet  orange,  which  alone  is  worthy  of  garden  cultivation, 
the  best  varieties  are  the  Havana  or  Common  Sweet,  the  Mal- 
tese, the  Blood  Red,  the  Mandarin,  and  the  St.  Michael. 

The  orange  requires  a deep,  rich  loam.  To  procure  stocks 
for  budding  with  the  sweet  varieties,  sow  early  in  the  spring 
the  seeds  of  the  wild,  bitter  orange  of  Florida.  They  may 
be  budded  the  same  or  the  next  season. 

The  great  foe  of  the  orange-tree  is  the  scale  insect  (Coccus 


120 


The  Garden. 


Hesperidum),  but  the  common  chamomile  is  found  to  be  a 
specific  against  it.  This  herb,  in  bunches,  hung  on  the 
branches  of  the  trees,  drives  it  away,  and  by  cultivating  the 
plant  about  the  roots  of  the  tree,  it  is  protected  against  its 
attacks. 

2.  The  Lemon — Citrus  Limonum. 

The  lemon  is  cultivated  like  the  orange.  Besides  the  com- 
mon lemon,  there  is  an  Italian  variety  called  the  Sweet  Lemon. 
The  lime,  the  citron,  and  the  shaddock  belong  to  the  same 
family,  and  are  subject  to  the  same  culture. 

Y. SERRIED  FRUITS. 

1.  The  Grape — Vitis  of  species. 

The  grape  should  undoubtedly  head  the  list  of  berried 
fruits.  It  has  been  cultivated  from  the  earliest  ages,  and  in 
almost  every  country  in  the  temperate  zones.  The  varieties 
cultivated  in  Europe  are  all  of  one  species  ( Vitis  vinifera ),  and 
originated  in  Asia.  Our  native  grapes  are  of  different  species. 

The  foreign  grapes  do  not  succeed  in  this  country  in  open- 
air  culture.  The  Black  Burgundy  and  the  Sherry  may  per- 
haps be  considered  as  partial  exceptions  at  the  South.  Under 
glass  they  mhy  be  successfully  cultivated  in  all  parts  of  the 
United  States ; but  as  our  plan  does  not  embrace  hot-house 
cultivation,  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  Chorlton’s  “ Grape- 
Grower’s  Guide,”  and  other  works  devoted  specially  to  grape- 
culture. 

“ Grapes  and  Wine,”  a standard  work  on  the  cultivation 
of  the  native  Grape  and  manufacture  of  American  Wine,  by 
Geo.  Husmann,  of  Missouri,  is  one  of  the  best  authorities  on 
the  subject,  and  we  recommend  it  to  all  who  wish  full  and 
practical  information  on  Grape- culture  and  Wine-making. 
Published  by  Geo.  E.  Woodward,  K Y.,  and  sent,  post-paid, 
for  $1  50. 

The  grape  will  succeed  in  most  soils,  if  properly  prepared, 
but  dry,  rich  loam  is  preferable.  It  must  be  deeply  worked, 


T ii  e Fruit  Garden. 


121 


and,  if  at  all  wet,  thoroughly  underdrained.  Lime,  ashes, 
plaster  of  Paris,  and  bone-dust  may  be  added  to  the  common 
compost,  or  used  as  a top-dressing  with  great  advantage. 
Choose  a warm,  sunny  exposure  for  your  grapery.  In  the 
shade  the  fruit  is  liable  to  mildew. 

All  the  varieties  of  the  native  grape  arc  very  readily  propa- 
gated by  means  of  layering,  and  most  of  them  will  grow  from 
cuttings.  Cuttings — unless  struck  where  they  are  to  remain, 
which  is  the  better  plan  — should  be  left  where  they  are  started 
for  two  years  before  planting  out.  Layers  may  be  planted  out 
the  first  year.  Set  the  plants  from  twelve  to  twenty  feet  apart, 
according  to  the  height  of  the  trellis  and  the  mode  of  train- 
ing to  be  adopted.  When  planted,  cut  them  down  to  about 
two  eyes  from  the  ground,  and  allow  only  one  of  these  to 
grow  the  following  season. 

In  garden  culture,  grape-vines  are  trained  in  various  ways, 
as  fancy  or  convenience  may  dictate.  Downing  directs  as 
follows  : 

“ The  two  buds  left  on  the  set  are  allowed  to  form  two  up- 
right shoots  the  next  summer,  which  at  the  end  of  the  season 
are  brought  down  to  a horizontal 
position,  and  fastened  each  way  to 
the  lower  horizontal  rail  of  the 
trellis,  being  shortened  to  three  or 
four  feet,  or  such  a distance  each 
way  as  it  is  wished  to  have  the 
plant  extend.  The  next  year  up- 
right shoots  are  allowed  to  grow 
one  foot  apart ; and  these  are 
stopped  at  the  top  of  the  trellis.  The  third  year,  the  trellis 
being  filled  with  vines,  a set  of  lateral  shoots  will  be  produced 
from  the  upright  leaders,  with  from  one  to  three  bunches  on 
each.  The  vine  is  now  j>erfect,  and  it  is  only  necessary  at  the 
autumnal  or  winter  pruning  to  cut  back  the  lateral  shoots  or 
fruit-spurs  to  within  an  inch  of  the  uprights,  and  new  laterals 
producing  fruit  will  annually  supply  their  places.  If  it  should 
6 


122 


The  Garden. 


be  found,  after  several  years  bearing,  that  the  grapes  fail  in 
size  or  flavor,  the  vines  should  be  cut  down  to  the  main  hori- 
zontal shoots  at  the  bottom  of  the  trellis.  New  uprights  will 
be  produced,  which  treat  as  before.” 

This  is  the  way  to  have  good  crops  of  perfect  grapes.  If 
you  desire  wood  and  leaves  instead,  less  pruning  will  do.  The 
annual  pruning  should  be  performed  either  in  November,  in 
February,  or  early  in  March — at  least  a month  before  vegeta- 
tion commences.  All  the  other  pruning  required  may  be 
performed  with  the  fingers  or  a pair  of  scissors.  Only  two 
bunches  should  be  allowed  to  grow  on  one  shoot ; and  the  end 
of  the  shoot  should  be  pinched  off,  four  or  five  joints  beyond 
the  last  of  these,  when  the  grapes  are  about  half  grown.  All 
suckers  and  supernumerary  shoots  should  be  rubbed  off  so 
soon  as  they  appear.  Beyond  this,  no  leaves  must  be  re- 
moved, as  they  are  absolutely  essential  to  the  full  develop- 
ment and  ripening  of  the  fruit.  Every  third  year,  at  least, 
the  borders  where  the  grapevines  are  growing  should  have  a 
heavy  top-dressing  of  manure. 

Grapes  may  be  preserved  for  a considerable  time  by  taking 
the  ripe  bunches  when  free  from  external  moisture,  and  pack- 
ing tliem^in  jars,  filling  all  the  interstices  with  baked  saw- 
dust or  bran. 


2.  The  Currant — Ribes  Rubrum. 

The  currant  is  more  easily  cultivated  than  any  other  fruit. 
The  best  mode  of  propagating  it  is  by  planting  out  cuttings 
in  the  fall,  or  quite  early  in  the  spring.  It  is  well  to  procure 
the  cuttings  in  the  fall,  and  keep  them  like  scions  until  spring. 
By  taking  out  all  the  eyes  of  a cutting  except  the  three  or 
four  upper  ones,  currants  can  easily  be  kept  in  the  form  of 
little  trees. 

3.  The  Gooseberry — Ribes  Grossularia . 

The  gooseberry  requires  a deep,  strong,  rich  soil.  It  is  very 


The  Fruit  Garden. 


123 


liable  to  suffer  from  drouth,  and  in  dry  seasons  should  be 
mulched.  It  is  rather  shy  of  bear- 
ing in  this  country,  and  does  not 
succeed  in  all  localities,  even  at 
the  North.  At  the  South  it  is 
nearly  useless,  in  ordinary  locali- 
ties, to  attempt  its  culture. 

The  tree  form  is  best  for  the 
gooseberry;  and  one  half  of  the 
top  should  be  thinned  out  at  the 
winter  pruning,  so  as  to  admit 
light  and  air  through  the  head  of 
the  plant.  When  the  berries  are  fairly  set,  thin  them  out,  tak- 
ing away  one  half  or  more  of  them  for  the  benefit  of  the  rest. 
The  best  preventive  and  remedy  for  mildew  is  to  keep  the 
plants  well  manured  and  pruned  every  year. 

4.  The  Raspberry — Bubus  Idams . 

A deep,  rich  loam,  rather  moist  than  dry,  suits  the  rasp- 
berry best.  It  is  propagated  by  suckers  or  offsets.  Plant  in 
a sunny  quarter  of  the  garden,  in  rows  from  three  to  four  feet 
apart  each  way.  Three  or  four  suckers  may  be  planted  to- 
gether to  form  a group.  This  should  be  done  in  the  autumn 
or  very  early  in  the  spring. 

All  dead  wood  and  the  smaller  stems  should  be  cut  away  in 
the  spring,  even  with  the  ground.  Four  or  five  shoots  should 
be  left,  and  tied  to  a stake,  the  tops  having  about  one  foot  of 
their  upper  extremities  headed  off.  A slight  top-dressing  of 
manure,  with  a sprinkling  of  salt,  dug  in  every  spring,  is  all 
the  further  cultivation  required. 

The  raspberry  plant  is  in  perfection  when  it  is  three  years 
old.  When  it  is  about  six  years  old,  it  should  be  dug  up,  and 
a new  plantation  made,  on  a piece  of  ground  where  the  plant 
has  not  recently  grown  before.  It  is  an  excellent  mode  to 
make  a small  plantation  every  year,  so  as  to  continue  a supply 
of  the  fruit.  In  extreme  cold  latitudes,  it  is  necessary  to  bend 


HOUGHTON’S  SEEDLING. 


124 


The  Garden. 


the  plants  down,  and  cover  them  with  earth  or  straw  through 
the  winter. 

To  have  a fine  crop  of  late  raspberries,  cut  down  some  of 
the  canes  or  stems,  in  the  spring,  to  within  a few  inches  of 
the  ground.  The  new  shoots  which  will  spring  up  will  come 
into  bearing  in  August  or  September. 


The  low  blackberry  or  dewberry  ( rubus  Canadensis)  has 
never,  we  believe,  been  cultivated,  but  the  fruit,  when  well 
exposed  to  the  sun  and  fully  ripened,  is  sweet,  high  flavored, 
and  not  to  be  despised.  It  is  also  doubtless  susceptible  of 
improvement.  Of  the  high  blackberry  {rubus  villosus ),  the 
following  improved  varieties  are  highly  esteemed,  and  the 
first  two  much  cultivated. 

The  blackberry  requires  similar  culture  to  the  raspberry. 


This  is  the  queen  of  all  berries — delicious,  wholesome,  and 
universally  esteemed.  It  is  a native  of  the  temperate  latitudes 
of  Asia,  Europe,  and  America.  The  best  varieties  now  culti- 
vated in  this  country  have  originated  from  native  species — 
the  Scarlets  and  the  Pines. 

In  its  wild  ofc  natural  state,  the  strawberry  generally  pro- 
duces hermaphrodite  or  perfect  blossoms.  Cultivated  varieties 
have  not  all  retained  this  property.  They  are  properly  di- 
vided, with  reference  to  their  blossoms,  into  three  classes — 
hermaphrodite,  staminate,  and  pistillate.  Varieties  of  the  first 
class  are,  like  the  wild  plants,  perfect  in  themselves,  and  bear 
excellent  crops.  In  the  second  class,  the  staminate  or  male 


5.  Blackberry — Rubus  of  species. 


6.  The  Strawberry — Frag  aria  of  species. 


c 


Hermaphrodite. 


Staminate. 


Pistillate. 


8TB  AW  -BEERY  BLOSSOMS. 


The  Fruit  Garden. 


125 


organs  are  perfect,  but  the  female  or  pistillate  organs  are  more 
or  less  imperfect.  They  bear  uncertain  and  comparatively 
small  crops,  because  only  a part  of  the  blossoms  develop  the 
pistils  sufficiently  to  swell  into  perfect  fruit.  Plants  of  the 
third  class  bear  only  pistillate  or  female  blossoms,  and  are  by 
themselves  entirely  barren ; but  when  grown  near  a proper 
number  of  the  staminate  plants,  they  bear  the  largest  crops 
and  the  most  perfect  berries.  In  planting  a strawberry  bed, 
therefore,  it  is  important  to  know  which  are  staminate,  which 
pistillate,  and  which  hermaphrodite  varieties,  and  to  arrange 
them  accordingly. 

Form  your  strawberry  bed  in  an  open  exposure,  free  from 
the  shade  of  trees  or  buildings.  For  an  early  crop,  a slight 
inclination  to  the  south  or  east  is  desirable.  The  ground 
must  be  deeply  spaded,  and  a plenty  of  decomposed  leaves 
and  other  vegetable  manure  and  ashes  well  turned  under  and 
mixed  with  the  soil.  Pulverize  the  soil  thoroughly.  Now 
mark  off  your  bed  into  rows  two  feet  apart,  and  set  the  plants, 
if  of  the  large  growing  sorts,  two  feet  apart.  For  some  of 
the  smaller  sorts  one  foot  or  eighteen  inches  will  do.  “ Care 
should  be  taken  that  the  plants  are  put  into  the  ground  just 
as  they  came  out  of  it — that  is,  with  all  their  laterals  spread- 
ing, and  not  all  gathered  together  and  crammed  into  a little 
hole.”  If  your  principal  sort  is  a pistillate,  you  must  plant  a 
sufficient  number  of  staminate  plants  to  impregnate  the  others. 
Of  less  vigorous  kinds,  more  are  required.  It  is  well  to  plant 
them  in  alternate  strips,  thus  : 


p p p p 
p p P p 
p p p p 
P P P p 


p p p P 
p p p p 
p p p p 
p P p P 


p p p p 
p p p p 
p p p p 
p p p p 


p p P 
p p p 
p p P 
p p p 


S S 8 8 


P P P P 
P P P P 
P P P P 
P P P P 


PATH 

8 8 8 8 
PATH 

P P P P 

P P P P 

P P P P 

P P P P 


8 8 8 8 


P P P P 
P P P P 
P P P P 
P P P P 


8 8 8 


P P P 
P P P 
P P P 
P P P 


126 


The  Garden. 


The  staminate  strip  may,  of  course,  consist  of  several  rows 
if  desirable. 

In  planting  the  hermaphrodite  or  perfect  flowered  varieties, 
as  the  Woods,  Amines,  and  Hautbois,  of  course  no  such 
arrangement  is  required.  Planting  may  be  done  with  success 
either  in  autumn  or  spring.  Keep  the  ground  well  worked 
between  the  rows,  to  keep  it  free  from  weeds,  and,  unless  you 
want  new  plants  for  a future  setting,  cut  off  all  the  runners  so 
soon  as  they  appear.  A light  mulching  with  partially  decayed 
leaves  or  straw,  covering  the  whole  ground,  but  not  the  plants, 
will  prove  highly  beneficial,  especially  in  dry  seasons  and  at 
the  South.  Before  the  fruit  begins  to  ripen,  cover  the  ground 
with  a thin  layer  of  straw,  hay,  or  new-mown  grass,  to  keep 
the  fruit  clean.  Every  autumn,  if  the  plants  be  not  sufficiently 
luxuriant,  a light  top-dressing  of  manure  should  be  applied. 

A strawberry  bed  must  always  be  renewed  after  the  fourth 
year.  An  easy  mode  of  renewing  a strawberry  is  what  is 
called  cultivation  in  alternate  strips.  On  the  third  summer 
from  planting,  suffer  the  runners  to  grow  and  root  into  the 
spaces  between  the  rows  ; then,  in  the  fall  or  spring,  dig  up 
the  old  plants,  and  your  new  rows  are  already  formed  in  what 
were  last  year  the  spaces  between  the  rows.  At  the  end  of 
three  years  repeat  the  process,  and  so  on,  not  forgetting  to 
spade  in  a generous  quantity  of  vegetable  manure  whenever 
you  dig  up  the  old  rows. 

“ To  accelerate  the  ripening  of  strawberries,”  Downing 
says,  u it  is  only  necessary  to  plant  the  rows  or  beds  on  the 
south  side  of  a wall  or  tight  fence.  A still  simpler  mode  is  to 
throw  up  a ridge  of  earth  three  feet  high,  running  east  and 
west,  and  to  plant  it  in  rows  on  the  south  side.”  Ten  days 
or  more  may  be  gained  in  this  way ; and  if  later  fruit  be  de- 
sired, rows  planted  on  the  north  side  would  probably  have 
their  fruiting  retarded  nearly  as  much. 

Mr.  Peabody,  of  Georgia,  one  of  the  most  successful  straw- 
berry culturists  in  the  world,  insists  with  great  emphasis  that 
no  animal  manure  should  be  used  in  the  cultivation  of  this 


The  Fruit  Garden. 


127 


plant.  The  grand  secret  of  success,  he  says,  is  to  feed  the 
'plant  for  fruit , and  not  for  vine — to  stint  the  natural  luxu- 
riance of  the  latter,  and  turn  all  the  vital  forces  of  the  plant 
to  the  production  of  berries.  In  this  way,  and  by  keeping 
the  ground  shaded  by  mulch,  and  continually  watering  his 
plants,  he  has  fine  strawberries  for  nine  months  out  of  the 
twelve.  “ Let  the  cultivator  remember,”  he  says,  “ the  four 
great  requisites  for  a profitable  strawberry  bed : Proper  loca- 
tion, vegetable  manures,  shade  to  the  ground,  and  water, 
water,  water.”  The  shade  to  the  ground  is  secured  by  the 
mulching  we  have  recommended.  The  watering  is  less  essen- 
tial at  the  North  than  at  the  South,  but  is  often  very  advan- 
tageous. Let  no  reader  of  this  little  work  neglect  to  plant  a 
strawberry  bed,  and  enjoy  with  thankfulness  its  delicious 
fruits. 

VI. — MISCELLANEOUS  ERUITS. 

1.  The  Fig — Ficus  Carica. 

This  delicious  southern  fruit  is  a native  of  Asia  and  Africa, 
and  has  been  cultivated  from  the  earliest  times.  In  our  South- 
ern States  it  grows  almost  spontaneously  everywhere.  In  the 
Middle  States  it  may  be  cultivated  in  the  open  air,  by  keeping 
it  low,  and  covering  it  well  during  the  winter. 

The  fig  is  propagated  by  cuttings  either  of  the  shoots  or  the 
root,  and  planted  either  in  the  fall  or  the  spring.  Planted  in 
hot-beds  in  January,  they  will  form  handsome  plants  the  same 
season.  Layers  also  may  be  made,  and  suckers  taken  off  for 
planting.  Set  them  out  fifteen  feet  apart,  and  the  first  winter 
after  planting  they  may  be  cut  off  nearly  to  the  ground.  The 
next  year  they  will  make  vigorous  shoots,  one  or  more  of  which 
may  be  allowed  to  grow,  and  the  rest  rubbed  off.  When 
young,  it  is  best  even  at  the  South  to  protect  the  tree  during 
the  winter  by  covering  it  with  evergreen  branches.  Little 
pruning  is  required.  North  of  Philadelphia  the  branches 
must  be  bent  down  to  the  ground  on  the  approach  of  winter, 
and  covered  with  three  or  four  inches  of  soil.  No  one  who 


128 


The  Garden. 


lives  in  a climate  adapted  to  tlieir  growth,  should  fail  to  cul- 
tivate a few  fig-trees. 

2.  The  Pomegranate — Punica  Granatum. 

This  unique  and  beautiful  fruit  should  receive  more  atten- 
tion than  has  hitherto  been  given  to  it  in  all  Southern  gar- 
dens. It  will  grow  readily  so  far  north 
as  Maryland,  but  does  not  always  ma- 
ture its  fruit  perfectly  north  of  South 
Carolina.  The  tree  is  quite  ornamental, 
and  the  fruit  has  a very  refreshing 
acid  pulp.  Its  singular  and  beautiful 
appearance  renders  it  a welcome  addi- 
tion to  the  dessert.  It  is  also  used 
medicinally  in  fevers,  on  account  of 
its  cooling  nature.  It  might  be  ex- 
ported from  the  South  to  any  extent. 
It  is  propagated  by  cuttings,  layers,  or 
suckers,  and  is  very  easily  cultivated.  The  finest  varieties 
are  the  Sweet  Fruited,  the  Sub-acid  Fruited,  and  the  Wild 
Acid  Fruited.  Besides  these,  there  are  several  double-flow- 
ering varieties,  which  are  very  beautiful. 

3.  ThB  Mulberry — Morus  of  species. 

The  mulberry  deserves  mention  here,  and  a place  in  the 
garden  or  lawn.  It  is  a hardy  and  handsome  tree,  and  pro- 
duces a palatable  and  wholesome  fruit. 

The  Red  Mulberry  ( morus  rubra)  is  a native  species,  but  is 
less  desirable  for  the  garden  than  the  Black  Mulberry  ( morus 
nigra),  a species  much  esteemed  and  widely  cultivated  in  Eu- 
rope. This  sort  will  hardly  succeed,  except  in  very  warm  and 
sheltered  situations,  north  of  New  York.  It  is  propagated 
by  cuttings,  and  easily  cultivated. 


The  Garden, 


129 


A CALENDAR  OF  OPERATIONS 

m EACH  MONTH  OP  THE  TEAR,  FOR  THE  ORCHARD,  VINEYARD, 
\ FARM,  GREENHOUSE  AND  GARDEN. 


JANUARY. 

Orchard . 

Destroying  eggs  of  insects,  protection  of  trees  against  the  depredations  of  mice 
and  rabbits,  which  in  some  sections  do  much  damage  by  girdling  the  trees,  is 
about  all  that  can  be  done  at  this  season.  A wash  of  cow-dung,  lime,  and  sul- 
phur is  recommended  as  a preventive  against  the  rabbit.  Mice  work  only 
under  the  snow,  and  if  this  is  trodden  down  occasionally,  immediately  around  the 
tree,  there  is  little  danger  from  their  attacks. 

Vineyard . 

In  the  northern  sections  of  the  country,  vines,  if  not  already  protected,  should 
be  laid  down  on  the  ground  and  some  litter  thrown  over  them  ; or  if  the  ground 
is  not  frozen,  cover  with  three  inches  of  earth.  In  the  latter  case,  the  vines 
should  be  raised  early  in  the  spring,  or  the  buds  will  be  apt  to  rot.  If  vines  are 
not  already  pruned,  do  so,  selecting  a mild  day  when  the  temperature  is  above 
the  freezing-point. 

Farm. 

The  ground  being  now  frozen,  out-door  operations  are  in  the  main  suspended ; 
still,  the  industrious  farmer  will  find  plenty  of  occupation  in  planning  for  next 
season’s  operations.  His  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  pigs,  cows,  and  especially  the 
young  stock,  will  require  his  attention,  that  they  may  be  in  good  condition  in  the 

spring. 

Fences  maybe  repaired,  firewood  cut,  ice-houses  filled,  manure  thrown,  into 
heaps  and  prepared  for  spring  use,  and  tools  of  all  kinds  repaired. 


130 


Tiie  Garden. 


Garden . 

There  is  but  little  that  can  be  done  at  this  season.  If  not  done  already,  and  the 
ground  is  not  covered  with  snow,  clear  up  all  rubbish,  put  away  poles,  stakes, 
etc.,  under  cover,  and  prepare  new  ones,  if  required,  for  next  season’s  use.  If 
there  are  any  cold  frames  in  use,  they  should  be  aired  when  the  weather  will 
permit.  See  that  a good  stock  of  seeds  is  provided  for  spring  use. 

Green-house . 

Admit  air  at  every  favorable  opportunity  when  the  thermometer  out  of  doors 
is  above  the  freezing  point ; 45°  to  50°  is  high  enough  as  a night  temperature  for 
general  green-house  plants.  Camellias  and  Azaleas  do  better  at  40°.  Look  out 
for  insects,  and  fumigate  with  tobacco  as  soon  as  seen.  Be  careful  that  the  smoke 
is  not  too  strong.  Camellias  will  soon  be  in  bloom ; also  some  of  the  early- 
blooming  Azaleas.  Avoid  wetting  the  flowers  when  syringing  the  plants.  Water 
plants  only  when  needed ; perform  the  operation  in  the  morning,  using  water  five 
to  ten  degrees  higher  than  the  temperature  of  the  house.  A few  Achimenes  and 
Gloxinias  may  be  potted  and  plunged  in  bottom  heat,  for  early  bloom.  Keep 
plants  of  Calla  Ethiopica  well  watered.  Cyclamen  persicum  will  now  be  in  bloom, 
and  make  a fine  show  if  the  bulbs  are  large.  Scarlet  Geraniums  will  require  but 
little  water  at  this  season.  Cinerarias  should  be  kept  near  the  glass,  and  repot- 
ted if  needed.  Keep  all  plants  neat  and  clean,  and  tie  into  neat  shape  when  re- 
quired. 


FEBRUARY. 

Orchard. 

But  little  can  be  added  to  the  directions  given  last  month.  Cions  may  be  cut 
when  the  wood  is  not  frozen,  and  may  be  preserved  in  damp  sand  or  moss  in  a 
cool  cellar.  Keep  a look-out  for  mice  and  rabbits.  It  is  the  general  practice  with 
farmers,  and  some  professed  fruit-growers,  to  prune  apples,  pears,  cherry,  and 
other  trees  in  mid-winter.  We  do  not  regard  the  season  as  the  correct  or  best 
one  for  the  labor,  and  why  ? because  if  the  operation  is  correctly  performed,  that 
is,  the  cut  made  close  to  the  bud  or  body,  it  is  liable  to  dry  hard,  crack,  and  cause 
death  of  the  bud  in  the  one  case,  or  d^cay  of  the  trunk  or  large  limb  in  the 
other.  It  is  better  to  delay  pruning  until  June. 

Vineyard. 

There  is  nothing  to  be  done  here  to  which  the  directions  of  last  month  will 
not  apply.  If  any  vines  aoe  not  pruned,  do  it  when  the  wood  is  not  frozen. 

Garden. 

Sketoh  out  plans  for  flower-beds,  and  arrange  the  position  of  plants  therein, 
so  that  there  may  be  no  delay  when  the  time  arrives  for  commencing  work. 


The  Gakden. 


131 


Materfffift  should  be  got  read}1'  for  starting  hot-beds.  About  the  last  of  the 
month  wnl  be  soon  enough  to  make  the  bed,  but  in  the  mean  time  secure  a supply 
of  materials.  Fresh  horse  manure,  to  which  should  be  added  an  equal  bulk  of 
leaves,  may  be  thrown  together  in  heaps,  and  turned  over  every  three  or  four  days 
until  it  ^Thoroughly  heated.  Manure  alone  gives  the  greatest  heat,  but  a mix- 
ture of  loaves  and  manure  the  most  permanent.  Earth  should  be  provided  for 
the  bed  at  the  first  opportunity,  and  covered  over  to  prevent;  freezing  up  again 
until  wanted.  Look  over  the  shrubbery,  hardy  roses,  etc.,  and  if  they  need  prun- 
ing, it  may  be  done  now.  Thin  out  the  old  wood  of  the  currant  and  gooseberry 
bushes,  and  thus  improve  the  size  and  quality  of  the  fruit  next  season. 

Farm. 

Our  directions  for  last  month  will  apply  to  this.  The  principal  business  will 
be  the  care  of  the  animals,  and  looking  after  a supply  of  wood  .for  next  season, 
as  well  as  getting  out  posts  and  rails  for  new  fences,  and  for  the  repairs  of  old 
ones.  While  the  snow  is  on  the  ground,  hauling  from  the  wood^-lot  can  be  done 
to  great  advantage. 

Grcen-liouse. 

The  house  should  now  be  gay  with  flowers.  Camellias  will  be  in  full  bloom, 
and  in  warm  houses  Azaleas  also.  Both  should  be  carefully  attended,  that  they 
do  not  lack  for  water.  One  of  the  best  plants  for  winter  bloom  is  the  Monthly 
Carnation,  and  if  a good  supply  of  plants  has  been  secured,  there  will  now  be 
plenty  of  blooms.  Look  carefully  to  the  fires,  that  frost  may  not  get  into  the 
house  on  cold  nights.  Endeavor  to  keep  the  night  temperature  as  regular  as 
possible,  and  air  the  house  in  the  daytime  at  every  favorable  opportunity!  Prop- 
agate cuttings  of  Verbenas,  Petunias,  Carnations,  and  such  other  plants  as  are 
wanted  for  bedding  out  in  the  garden,  or  for  the  green-house  next  winter.  Cut- 
tings put  in  now  will  make  fine  strong  plants  by  the  time  for  planting  out.  Ci- 
nerarias and  Primroses  in  bloom  may  be  watered  occasionally  with  manure  water. 
The  Double-White  Chinese  Primrose  is  a splendid  object  when  well  grows,  It 
must  be  propagated  by  cuttings.  If  plants  of  Deutzia  Gracilis,  Weigelia  Rosd*,  or 
Double-Flowering  Plum  were  potted  in  the  fall,  they  may  now  be  started  in  the 
warmest  corner  of  the  house.  Insects  will  now  begin  to  be  busy.  Give  them 
occasional  doses  of  tobacco  smoke. 


MARCH. 

Orchard . 

If  new  orchards  are  to  be  planted  the  coming  spring,  make  out  lists  of  trees 
wanted,  and  send  to  a reliable  nurseryman  at  once.  You  will  be  able  to  secure 
better  trees  now,  than  if  the  order  is  sent  just  at  the  planting  season.  Continue 
searching  for  eggs  of  insects  under  the  rough  bark,  and  on  limbs  of  trees.  It  will 
be  advantageous  to  apply  a wash  of  strong  soft  soap  and  water  to  the  body  and 
larger  branches,  to  destroy  any  eggs  that  may  otherwise  escape.  Look  out  for 
the  apple-borer  now.  Remove  the  earth  for  a few  inches  in  depth  immediately 
around  the  tree.  Scrape  the  bark  gently  with  the  back  of  the  pruning-knife,  to 
ascertain  where  the  borer  is  located,  then  cut  him  out.  We  have  found  in  our 
practice  that  a mallet  and  a half-inch  carpenter’s  gouge  are  the  best  instruments. 


132 


The  Garden. 


Don’t  be  satisfied  with  poking  a wire  into  the  holes.  We  know  to  our  cost  that 
it  is  not  always  effectual. 

Vineyard. 

As  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  uncover  all  vines  that  have  been  pro- 
tected by  earth  or  litter..  If  left  covered  after  the  ground  begins  to  get  warm, 
the  buds  are  l.able  to  decay.  Tie  the  vines  up  to  the  trellis,  and  if  new  vines  are 
to  be  planted,  secure  them  at  once. 

Farm. 

Improve  all  ihe  favorable  weather  this  month  to  haul  manure  into  the  fields, 
ready  to  be  plowed  in  at  the  proper  time.  Manure  should  be  thrown  into 
compact  heaps,  and  spread  when  the  frost  is  not  in  the  ground.  Select  the  best 
grain  for  seed,  and  see  that  it  is  free  from  seeds  of  weeds.  Considerable  work 
may  be  done  the  latter  part  of  this  month  in  picking  up  and  hauling  off  stone 
from  fields  that  require  it.  Fences  may  be  put  in  repair,  and  new  ones  made. 

Garden. 

Make  hot  beds  for  starting  seeds  of  early  vegetables,  and  sow  seeds  of  Pepper, 
Egg  plant,  Tomato,  Early  Cabbage,  Cauliflower,  Celery,  etc.  Hardy  vegetable 
seeds  may  be  sown  in  the  open  ground  the  last  of  the  month — Onions,  Beets, 
Peas,  Parsnep.  Lettuce,  Radish,  Spinach,  etc.  Remove  covering  from  Asparagus, 
Spinach,  Raspberry-canes,  etc.  Prepare  all  vacant  ground  for  general  planting  in 
April  and  May.  Seeds  of  hardy  flowers  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  will 
admit.  Tender  annuals  should  be  sown  in  the  hot-bed,  and  transplanted  into 
open  ground  in  May. 

Green-liouse. 

Camellias  Will  be  now  making  their  growth,  and  will  need  more  wTater  than  at 
other  times,  also  an  increase  of  temperature.  About  the  commencement  of 

frowt.h  is  a good  time  to  graft  or  inarch  with  better  varieties.  Azaleas  will  be  in 
loom  unless  they  have  been  kept  very  cool ; but  in  a large  collection,  flowers 
may  be  had  from  December  to  May,  some  varieties  flowering  early,  others  late. 
Cinerarias  will  now  be  in  bloom ; fumigate  them  if  attacked  with  green-fly. 
Start  Gloxinias  and  Achimenes  for  succession. 

Flower  seeds  may  be  started  in  pots  and  boxes. 

Propagate  Chrysanthemums.  Cuttings  make  better  plants  than  those  procured 
by  division  of  the  old  roots.  Fuchsias  struck  now  will  make  fine  blooming 
plants  for  next  summer. 

Push  the  propagating  of  plants  to  the  utmost  now,  to  have  an  abundance  at 
time  for  planting  out  of  doors.  Also  put  in  cuttings  for  next  winter’s  stock.  The 
season  is  so  far  advanced  that  the  sun  will  furnish  all  the  heat  by  day,  and  mod- 
erate fires  only  will  be  required  at  night.  Give  air  freely  in  all  moderate  weather, 
and  close  the  house  early,  To  retain  as  much  sun-heat  as  possible. 


APRIL. 

Orchard. 

~ This  is  the  month  whep  the  most  of  the  planting  is  done,  though  we  prefer 
doing  this  in  the  fall,  in  this  latitude.  Prepare  your  ground  thoroughly  over  the 
Whole  orchard,  if  a new  one  is  to  be  planted,  by  plowing,  subsoiling,  and  en- 
riching. If  new  trees  are  to  be  planted  in  places  where  old  ones  have  died,  dig 
the  holes  not  less  than  six  feet  in  diameter,  and  fill  up  with  fresh  soil  if  possible. 


The  Gakden 


133 


Grafting  may  now  be  done.  Cions  should  have  been  cut  during  the  winter; 
but  if  this  has  been  neglected,  they  should  be  cut  a few  days  before  wanted  for 
use.  Don't  be  in  a hurry  to  graft  too  early,  but  wait  until  the  buds  b«gin  to  start. 
If  your  trees  are  not  growing  thriftily,  give  your  orchard  a good  top-dressing  of 
old  manure,  and  plow  it  in. 

Vineyard. 

Unless  the  soil  is  naturally  drained,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  success  that 
it  should  be  thoroughly  drained.  Fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  is  deep  enough 
to  work  the  soil  for  a vineyard.  Plant  only  well-tested  varieties  found  to  sue 
ceed  m your  locality.  Test  new  varieties,  if  you  have  the  time  and  space  tor 
experiments. 

Farm. 

Plow  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  in  a tit  state,  which  it  will  be  when  it  will 
crumble  and  fall  to  pieces.  In  some  soils  plowing,  done  when  the  ground  is 
wet,  leaves  it  to  bake  hard  on  becoming  dry.  Spread  the  manure  hauled 
out  last  month,  and  plow  it  under.  Spring  grain  of  all  kinds  will  need  to 
be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  prepared  properly.  If  root  crops  are  culti- 
vated, carrots,  parsneps'  and  beets  should  be  sown  at  once.  A seed  drill 
will  be  found  very  useful  at  this  time.  Plant  potatoes  on  rich  ground,  or  made 
so  at  the  time  of  planting.  Do  not  plant  the  small  potatoes ; better  cut  up  the 
large  ones  in  pieces,  if  seed  is  scarce. 

Garden. 

Uncover  the  strawberry  beds,  or  rather  expose  the  crowns  of  the  plants.  The 
mulch  will  be  better  left  to  keep  the  ground  moist.  Make  new  beds  if  needed. 
Beds  made  now,  and  properly  cared  for,  will  give  a full  crop  next  spring.  Fork 
up  the  asparagus  beds  lightly,  taking  care  not  to  injure  the  buds  or  roots.  Make 
new  beds  now,  preparing  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  eighteen  inches,  and  incor 
porating  with  it  a considerable  amount  of  old  manure.  Salt  is  considered  an  ex- 
cellent fertilizer  for  this  vegetable — it  may  be  applied  in  spring  or  fall. 

Early  Cabbage  plants  may* be  planted  out  the  latter  end  of  this  mouth.  Plants 
in  hot-beds  should  be  thinned  out,  or  better  transplanted  three  to  four  inches 
apart  into  a cooler  bed.  Plant  Peas  for  a succession.  Early  Potatoes  should  now 
be  put  in  drills.  It  is  rather  too  soon  to  plant  beans  or  corn  this  month. 

Plant  out  flowering  shrubs,  roses,  etc.  Seeds  of  hardy  plants  may  be  sown, 
but  all  seeds  of  tender  plants  should  be  kept  until  next  month,  or  sown  in  a 
hot-bed.  Hyacinths  and  tulips  should  have  their  winter  covering  removed,  and 
the  surface  of  the  soil  stirred.  Transplant  herbaceous  plants. 

Green-house. 

There  will  be  httle  or  no  fire  heat  required  this  month  if  care  is  taken  to 
shut  up  the  house  before  the  sun  leaves  it.  Give  all  the  air  possible  during 
favorable  weather,  to  harden  the  plants  for  removal  out  of  doors  next  month. 
Prepare  for  a general  potting  by  getting  soil,  pots,  etc.,  in  order,  but  do  not  let  a 
plant  wait  for  a time  when  it  wants  attention.  Water  for  all  plants  will  now  be 
required  oftener.  Plants  that  are  to  be  left  in  the  house  during  the  summer  will 
require  some  shading  material  to  be  put  upon  the  glass.  Lath-screens  made  with 
openings  about  an  inch  and  a half  between,  and  placed  outside  of  the  glass,  expe- 
rience has  shown  to  be  an  effectual  and  cheap  mode  of  shading.  Propagate  by 
seeds,  roots,  and  cuttings,  inarching  and  grafting ; young  plants  thus  get  strong 
before  winter.  Remove  seedlings  as  soon  as  possible  from  seed  pans,  and  put 
them  single  into  pots.  Keep  Camellias  rather  close  and  warm  to  promote  a vigor- 
ous growth. 


134 


The  Gaedeh 


MAY. 


Or  eh ard , 

The  season  for  planting  is  pretty  well  over  by  this  time,  but  if  any  remains  ta 
be  done,  do  it  as  soon  as  it  is  possible  to  do  it  well.  If  trees  are  received  in  a 
dry  state,  bury  them  root  and  branch  for  a few  days,  then  prune  severely  when 
planted  out.  Grafting,  if  not  already  finished,  may  be  continued. 

If  plowing  is  to  be  done  in  the  orchard,  see  that  a careful  man  holds  the 
plow,  that  as  few  roots  may  be  injured  as  possible.  Make  war  on  insects  this 
month.  Remove  nests  of  tent-caterpillar  on  their  first  appearance,  and  get  your 
neighbor  to  join  you  in  your  efforts  for  their  destruction. 

Vineyard , 

If  vines  are  not  already  planted,  it  may  yet  be  done.  Vines,  if  not  tied  to  the 
trellis,  should  be  so  at  once.  After  the  buds  start,  they  are  very  liable  to  be  rub- 
bed off  in  handling.  The  time  to  tie  up  vines  is  while  the  buds  are  dormant. 
Layers  may  now  be  made  if  it  is  thought  desirable  to  increase  vines  in  this  way  ; 
preference  will  generally  be  given  to  vines  raised  from  cuttings  planted  out  in 
well-prepared  ground. 

. Farm, 

This  will  be  a busy  month.  Most  of  the  spring  grains  will  have  been  sown  in 
April,  but  the  latter  part  of  this  month  is  the  time  for  corn-planting.  It  is  useless 
to  put  the  seed  in  until  the  ground  is  warm,  and  equally  useless  to  plant  upon  any 
but  a rich  soil.  Some  of  the’  larger-growing  beets  should  be  sown  for  feeding  the 
cows  and  other  stock  during  the  fall  and  winter.  The  white  sugar  beet  and  yellow 
globe  mangel-wurzel  are  the  best  for  this  purpose.  Potatoes  for  the  general 
crop  should  be  put  in  as  early  as  possible,  Let  the  pastures  get  a good  start  be- 
fore the  cattle  are  turned  out.  Put  in  a good  supply  of  corn  fodder  now,  to  use  in 
the  hot  months,  when  pastures  fail. 

Garden, 

Plant  early  Valentine  and  China  beans  for  using  green,  and  Limas  for  shelling. 

Plant  sweet  corn  about  first  of  month,  and  again  in  about  two  weeks,  for  a succes- 
sion. The  first  planting  may  be  cut  off  by  frost,  but  is  often  successful.  Trans- 
plant tomatoes  and  other  plants  from  hot-beds  and  frames  as  soon  as  danger 
from  frost  is  past.  Cabbage  and  cauliflower  plants  should  have  a very  rich  soil. 
Plant  cucumbers,  melons,  and  bush  squashes  in  hills  at  least  six  feet  apart,  and 
manure  well.  Sow  late  sorts  of  peas.  In  the  flower-garden,  by  the  middle  of 
the  month,  seeds  of  most  flowers  may  be  planted ; those  kinds  that  bear  trans- 
planting may  be  sown  in  a reserve  bed,  from  which  they  may  be  taken  when 
wanted. 

Plant  bulbs  of  Gladiolus,  Tigrida,  Tuberose,  etc.,  and  prepare  beds  lor  the 
bedding-plants  from  the  green-house. 


Tiie  Garden. 


135 


Green-liouse. 

Admit  air  freely  in  good  weather ; toward  the  end  of  the  month  leave  a little 
air  on  all  night,  increasing  the  quantity  by  degrees. 

Shifting  plants  into  larger  pots  must  be  carefully  proceeded  with.  Seedlings 
and  cuttings  must  be  potted  off  in  time,  or  they  will  destroy  each  other. 

Bedding-plants  of  all  kinds  may  be  planted  out  about  the  middle  of  the  month. 
Carnations  should  be  planted  out,  and  if  required  for  winter  blooming,  the 
flower  shoots  pinched  off  frequently.  Neapolitan  Violets  should  be  divided,  and 
planted  out  in  rich  ground,  partially  shaded.  Water  and  syringe  Camellias  and 
Azaleas  freely  while  making  their  growth. 

About  the  middle  of  the  month  some  of  the  most  hardy  of  the  plants  may  be 
brought  from  the  green-house,  and  placed  in  a position  where  they  will  be  shaded 
for  a portion  of  the  day ; they  should  be  carefully  attended  to  for  water. 


JUNE. 


Orchard. 

If  large  limbs  are  to  be  removed,  this  month  is  the  time  to  do  it.  The  sap  is 
now  in  active  operation,  and  wounds  quickly  heal  over.  Consider  well  before 
you  remove  a branch  what  is  to  be  gained  by  it.  Never  send  an  ignorant  laborer 
into  an  orchard  to  prune  if  you  would  not  have  an  indiscriminate  cutting  of  limbs, 
but  study  the  form  of  the  tree  carefully,  and  if  the  branches  need  thinning,  use  a 
sharp  saw  and  knife,  and  leave  the  wound  smooth.  Cover  the  wounds  with  graft- 
ing wax,  or  shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol.  Rub  off  all  shoots  from  the  stock  about 
new-set  grafts,  and  renew  the  wax  if  it  has  melted  or  cracked  off.  Continue  the 
war  upon  the  insect  tribe,  and  especially  the  caterpillars  and  borers. 

Vineyard. 

Vines  will  now  be  making  rapid  growth,  and  will  require  attention  in  tying 
up,  pinching,  etc.  It  is  the  usual  practice  to  stop  the  shoots  at  three  or  four 
joints  or  leaves  beyond  the  last  cluster  of  fruit,  The  bunches  will  require  thin- 
ning out,  leaving  only  one  bunch  to  each  shoot,  if  fine  fruit  and  well-ripened 
wood  is  to  be  obtained. 

Farm. 

Com  is  planted  in  some  sections  as  late  as  the  first  of  this  month,  and  if  an 
early-maturing  kind  is  selected,  and  the  land  is  in  a good  condition,  fair  crops  are 
often  the  result.  It  is  not  too  late  to  put  in  a good  supply  of  corn  fodder  to  help 
out  the  pastures  in  the  dry  weather  in  August.  The  plow  and  hoe  must  be  kept 
busy  in  the  fields  of  early  planted  corn  and  other  hoed  crops,  to  eradicate  the 
weeds. 

The  latter  part  of  this  month  haying  will  commence  in  many  sections.  Get 
everything  ready  beforehand,  that  there  may  be  no  delay  when  the  time  comes. 

Garden. 

The  principal  work  in  the  garden  this  month  will  be  keeping  down  the  weeds. 
Don’t  let  them  get  a start.  Plant  sweet  corn  for  succession,  also  beans,  peas, 
lettuce.  Celery  for  early  use  should  be  set  in  trenches  well  manured.  Thin  out 
beds  of  onions,  beets,  carrots,  salsify,  etc.,  and  keep  them  free  from  weeds. 


136 


The  Garden 


Green-liousc . 

Green-house  plants  should  he  mostly  placed  out  of  doors  this  month.  In  plac- 
ing plants  out  of  doors,  try  to  have  them  so  that  they  will  he  in  shade  soon  after 
mid-day.  This  is  especially  a point  of  importance  as  we  go  farther  south,  where 
the  heat  of  afternoon  suns  often  nearly  destroys  the  plants. 

Camellias  should  remain  in  the  house  until  growth  ceases  and  the  wood  be- 
comes brown.  Azaleas  should  be  re-potted,  if  needed,  and  vigorous  shoots  pinch- 
ed to  make  the  plants  bushy.  Prepare  soil  for  winter  use.  Neapolitan  violets  lor 
winter  bloom  should  be  divided,  and  planted  out  in  rich  soil.  Achimenes.  Glox- 
inias, Caladiums.  etc.,  will  now  take  the  place  of  the  plants  taken  out  of  doors. 
The  house  should  be  well  shaded  by  the  lath  screens  before  recommended,  and 
careful  attention  given  to  watering.  Torrenia  Asiatica  will  now  be  a line  object ; 
it  looks  best  in  a vase,  or  hanging  basket,  the  shoots  being  allowed  to  droop 
over  the  side. 


RED  ANTWERP.  HORNET. 

JULY. 


_ Orchard. 

Pruning  may  be  continued  as  directed  last  month.  Look  to  the  grafts  set  last 
spring  that  they  be  not  robbed  by  the  numerous  suckers  that  are  sure  to  push 
out  about,  the  stocks  in  which  they  are  set.  If  any  trees  were  set  last  spring  and 
not  mulched,  do  it  now,  that  their  roots  may  be  preserved  from  the  influence  of 
the  sun  this  month  and  next.  If  it  is  desirable  to  have  large,  fine  fruit,  the  crop 
should  be  severely  thinned  now. 

Vineyard. 

Continue  to  tie  shoots  to  trellis  as  growth  progresses.  Look  over  the  bunches, 
and  see  that  too  many  are  not  left  on.  An  over-crop  this  season  will  be  followed 
by  unripe  wood  in  the  fall,  which  will  be  still  further  weakened  by  the  cold  of 
winter,  and  a meagre  crop  the  following  season  will  be  the  certain  result. 

If  mildew  makes  its  appearance,  give  the  vines  a dusting  of  sulphur.  De  La 
Yergnes’  Sulphur  Bellows  is  the  best  means  of  applying  it. 

Farm. 

This  month  will  commence  the  haying  and  harvest,  and  those  who  would  keep 
up  with  their  work  have  already  secured  sufficient  assistance.  Reapers,  Mowing- 
machines,  Hay  Tedders,  and  Horse  Pitchforks  save  an  immense  amount  of  hard 
labor,  and  even  on  farms  of  moderate  size  will  be  found  to  save  more  than  their 
cost  in  two  or  three  seasons.  Cut  hay  before  it  becomes  withered  and  dry.  It  is 
frequently  left  standing  too  long. 

Cut  wheat  before  it  is  fully  ripe,  and  while  it  is  in  the  dough  state. 

Sow  buckwheat  early  in  the  month  to  avoid  frosts  when  ripening.  Turnips 


The  Garden 


137 


should  be  sown  the  latter  part  of  the  month.  Continue  the  cultivation  of  hoed 
crops,  and  keep  down  all  weeds. 

Garden . 

Transplant  cabbage  and  cauliflower  plants  for  a late  crop.  Continue  to  trans- 
plant celery  into  trenches,  and  see  that  the  soil  in  which  they  grow  is  well  en- 
riched. Corn  for  using  as  green  corn  may  be  planted  as  late  as  the  15th,  to  give 
a supply  until  frosts.  Hoe  melons  and  cucumbers  until  the  vines  cover  the 
ground.  If  melons  are  thinned  on  the  vines,  those  remaining  will  be  all  the 
finer.  Dig  up  all  the  vacant  spaces  from  which  early  vegetables  have  been  re- 
moved, and  sow  turnips,  spinach,  and  other  late  crops. 

Green-liouse. 

The  majority  of  the  plants  will  be  out  of  doors,  as  before  advised,  but  will  re- 
quire to  be  looked  over  every  day  or  two  to  see  that  they  are  not  over  or  under 
watered.  Those  who  have  large  collections  will  find  it  to  their  advantage  to  con- 
struct a sort  of  shed,  with  the  sides  and  roof  of  lath,  placed  about  an  inch  and  a 
half  apart  This  will  admit  sufficient  light  and  air  on  all  sides,  as  well  as  the  rain. 
Some  of  our  large  florists  and  nurserymen  have  used  such  structures  much  to  their 
advantage,  for  the  protection  of  Camellias,  Azaleas,  etc.,  from  the  sun.  It  is  im- 
portant now  to  prepare  plants  for  winter  bloom.  Chinese  Primroses,  Cinerarias, 
Calceolarias  may  be  sown  this  month,  and  cuttings  of  all  desirable  plants  put  in. 
Carnations  from  cuttings,  planted  out,  may  have  the  tops  pinched  off  to  make 
them  branch  freely  and  prevent  bloom  now,  Look  over  the  plants,  and  see  if  any 
need  re-potting.  Tuberoses,  for  late  blooming  in-doors,  may  be  potted  now. 
Mignonette  and  Sweet  Alyssum  seeds  may  be  sown  in  pots  or  boxes. 


AUGUST. 

Orchard. 

There  will  be  little  remaining  to  be  done  in  the  orchard  this  month  if  previous 
hints  have  been  followed.  If  pruning  is  not  completed,  it  is  not  too  late  to 


138 


The  Garden 


finish  it  now.  Early  fruit  should  he  gathered  and  marketed  as  soon  as  ripe, 
and  all  windfalls  or  wormy  apples  gathered  and  taken  to  the  pig-pens.  The 
fruit  intended  for  market  should  be  carefully  picked  by  hand.  Fruit  bruised  by 
shaking  from  the  tree  brings  a lower  price,  and  quickly  decays. 

Vineyard . 

The  directions  given  last  month  apply  so  well  to  this,  that  we  can  add  but  little. 
Some  of  the  fruit  of  the  early  varieties  will  begin  to  color  the  last  of  the  month. 
Continue  to  tie  shoots  to  the  trellis,  and  use  the  sulphur  remedy  for  mildew. 

Farm , 

The  harvesting  of  grass  and  grain  crops  will  be  completed  early  this  month, 
the  time  somewhat  depending  upon  the  season.  See  that  the  grain  is  properly 
dried  before  it  is  put  into  barns  or  stacks.  If  in  stacks,  they  should  be  well  built, 
that  they  may  effectually  shed  the  rain.  Grass  and  grain  will  both  keep  well  in 
stacks  if  they  are  properly  put  up. 

Fall  plowing  may  commence  the  last  of  the  month.  Where  farms  are  large, 
plowing  should  be  continued  at  all  favorable  times,  when  other  work  is  not 
pressing. 

Garden, 

Continue  to  eradicate  the  weeds  whenever  they  make  their  appearance.  Pro- 
vide a good  supply  of  seeds  for  next  season’s  use,  of  those  varieties  found  to  be 
successful  and  of  good  quality.  Select  the  earliest  ripening  and  best  vegetables 
of  the  different  varieties  for  seed,  and  not,  as  is  too  often  tne  case,  gather  them 
after  the  crop  is  nearly  over,  and  the  best  have  been  used.  Sow  turnips  on  vacant 
places.  Earth  up  celery  wanted  for  early  use,  and  set  out  plants  for  the  latest 
crops. 

Green-house, 

Green-house  plants  in  general,  if  healthy,  and  wood  matured,  will  be  now  out  of 
doors  in  a sheltered  spot,  defending  the  pots  from  the  sun,  which  is  even  of  more 
importance  than  shading  the  tops.  Finish  potting  all  plants  in  need  of  the  oper- 
ation as  soon  as  possible,  that  they  may  become  well  established  before  winter. 
Almost  everything  may  now  be  successfully  propagated.  Gather  seeds  of  desira- 
ble plants  as  they  ripen.  Oxalis  and  Lachenalias  should  now  be  potted.  Plants 
out  of  doors,  as  well  as  in  the  house,  will  receive  much  benefit  by  a syringing 
every  evening.  Sow  seeds  of  annuals  required  for  winter  bloom.  Secure  a good 
supply  of  soil,  pots,  etc.,  for  future  use. 

Now  is  a good  time  to  look  over  houses ; make  any  necessary  repairs ; paint 
and  put  in  order  for  the  reception  of  the  plants. 


The  Garden. 


139 


SEPTEMBER. 


Orchard. 

If  trees  are  to  be  planted  in  the  fall,  which  is  the  best  time  in  this  latitude,  pre- 
pare the  ground  thoroughly  beforehand.  Order  the  trees  in  season,  that  they  may 
be  on  hand  when  wanted.  Select  only  such  varieties  as  are  known  to  succeed  in 
your  localities.  Look  out  for  the  borers  this  month,  and  do  not  leave  any  to  per- 
petuate the  race  another  season.  Gather  varieties  of  fruit  maturing  this  month 
as  soon  as  fit  to  pick. 

Vineyard. 

All  the  varieties  of  grapes  worth  having  will  mature  this  month.  Let  the  fruit 
become  fully  ripe  before  picking,  which  will  not  be  before  some  days  after  it  is 
fully  colored.  If  the  fruit  is  intended  for  wine,  the  longer  it  is  left  on  the  vine, 
so  that  it  escapes  frosts,  the  better  will  be  the  quality  of  the  wine.  If  fruit  is  to  be 
sent  to  market,  pack  in  boxes  about  one  foot  long  by  six  inches  wide,  and  of  suf- 
ficient depth  to  hold  two  layers  of  bunches ; pack  the  fruit,  close  that  there  be  no 
movement  of  it  in  transportation. 

Farm. 

Prepare  soil  thoroughly  for  winter  wheat,  and  sow  early.  Sowing  with  a drill 
will  be  found  advantageous  on  smooth  ground.  Grass-seed  may  be  sown  alone 
this  month  on  well-enriched  soil,  or  with  the  winter  grain.  Early  potatoes  may 
be  dug  and  marketed,  or  put  under  cover.  Cut  buckwheat  as  soon  as  it  ripens. 
Select  the  best  ears  of  corn  for  seed.  This  is  a good  time  to  drain  land,  dig  out 
muck  from  the  bogs  for  winter  use  in  the  barn-yards,  and  grub  up  bushes,  briars, 
etc. 

Garden. 

Keep  the  garden  clear  from  rubbish.  As  soon  as  one  crop  is  off,  even  if  no 
other  is  to  be  sown,  clear  off  the  dead  vines,  etc.,  and  carry  them  to  the  manure 
heap  ; dig  up  the  ground  and  keep  clear  from  weeds.  Continue  to  earth  up  celery, 
when  the  soil  is  not  wet.  Sow  seeds  of  early  cabbages  and  cauliflower  plants  for 
preserving  over  winter  in  frames. 

Green-house. 

Clear  out  and  repair  the  house,  if  not  already  done,  preparatory  to  bringing  in 
the  plants  the  latter  part  of  this,  or  early  next  month.  Sow  seeds  of  annuals  for 
winter  or  early  spring  blooming.  Pot  bulbs  of  Hyacinths,  Crocus,  Narcissus,  Lach- 
enalias,  for  early  bloom.  Propagate  Geraniums,  Fuchsias,  Salvias,  Petunias,  Ver- 
benas, etc. ; Primroses,  Cinerarias  and  Chyrsanthemums  should  be  repotted,  and 
encouraged  to  grow.  Water  sparingly  all  plants  in  a state  of  rest.  Take  up  such 
plants  as  were  planted  out  during  the  summer,  pot  and  put  them  in  a sheltered 
place  out  of  the  sun  for  a few  days.  See  that  you  have  a good  stock  of  Monthly 
Carnations.  Heliotropes  for  winter  flowering  should  not  be  planted  out,  but  be 
grown  in  pots  all  summer,  and  the  pots  plunged.  Clean,  tie,  and  arrange  plants 
of  all  kinds.  Where  there  is  not  plenty  of  room,  cuttings  put  in  early  will  an- 
swer better  than  old  plants  taken  up,  and  will  also  save  much  labor.  Take  up 
plants  of  Neapolitan  Violets,  plant  them  in  frames  to  be  covered  with  sash  and 
mats  on  cold  nights  With  careful  management  flowers  may  be  had  all  winter. 
They  may  be  also  potted  for  the  green-house,  but  will  be  required  to  be  kept 
very  cool  to  insure  bloom. 


140 


The  Garden. 


OCTOBER. 

Orchard. 

Pears  and  apples,  usually  termed  fall  varieties,  should  be  gathered  a week  or 
ten  days  before  they  would  naturally  drop.  Pick  them  by  hand ; lay  them  in  bar- 
rels or  boxes,  inclosing  them  tight,  and  place  them  in  a cool  but  dry  room  or  cel- 
lar. So  cared  for  they  will  often  keep  till  near  or  quite  mid-winter.  Winter  va- 
rieties, especially  long-keeping  sorts,  should  be  left  on  the  tree  as  long  as  the 
weather  will  permit.  Planting  may  be  done  the  latter  part  of  this  month,  on 
ground  previously  prepared. 

Orchards  that  have  been  many  years  in  grass,  as  well  as  the  trees  in  young  or- 
chards, will  receive  far  greater  benefit  from  plowing  the  ground,  and  leaving  it  in 
a rough  state  for  action  of  the  winter  frosts,  than  if  the  work  is  left  until 
spring. 

Farm. 

Fall  plowing  should  not  be  neglected  this  month.  Keep  the  teams  going  in  all 
favorable  weather.  Dig  potatoes  and  get  in  all  the  root  crops  before  the  ground 
freezes.  Turnips  can  be  left  out  until  the  last.  See  that  all  roots  are  put  away 
dry.  Root  crops  generally  keep  better  in  pits  out  of  doors  than  when  stored  in 
cellars.  Those  wanted  for  spring  use  may  be  placed  in  pits  and  lightly  covered 
with  earth  at  first.  When  hard  freezing  is  likely  to  occur,  cover  with  two  feet  of 
earth. 

Vineyard. 

Gather  all  grapes  before  frosty  nights  occur.  Prune  vines  as  soon  after  the  fall 
of  the  leaf  as  possible.  Grape-cuttings  made  as  soon  as  the  foliage  of  the  vine 
drops,  and  planted  out  in  well-prepared  land,  will  start  early  in  the  spring,  and 
make  a stronger  and  better  growth  than  when  made  during  winter  and  planted 
out  in  the  spring.  Plant  new  vine}rards  the  last  of  the  month,  on  ground  previ- 
ously well-prepared. 

Garden. 

Mow  off  the  tops  of  asparagus,  and  cover  the  beds  four  to  six  inches  deep 
with  manure.  Cauliflower  and  cabbage  plants  should  now  be  taken  up  and 
placed  in  frames  for  wintering.  Plant  deep,  and  about  three  inches  apart.  Leave 
off  the  sashes  until  cold  weather.  Continue  to  earth  up  celery.  Turnips  and 
salsify  for  spring  use  may  be  left  in  the  ground  all  winter ; those  wanted  for  use 
may  be  taken  up  and  preserved  in  sand  through  the  winter.  Strawberry  beds 
should  be  looked  over  and  all  weeds  removed. 

Green-liouse. 

Tender  plants  should  be  taken  in  early  this  month.  The  house  should  be 
abundantly  ventilated,  care  being  taken  to  close  up  early  to  avoid  frosts.  Look  over 
the  plants  and  see  that  they  are  free  from  insects.  Fire  may  be  needed  at  night 
the  latter  end  of  the  month.  Avoid  a high  temperature,  45  to  50  degrees  should 
not  be  exceeded.  Hyacinths  should  be  potted  early  this  month  ; place  them 
under  the  stage  in  the  house,  and  keep  the  soil  moist.  Chrysanthemums  for 
winter  blooming  shelter  from  cold  rains  and  early  frosts,  water  with  manure 
water  alternately  with  clean.  Pot  all  young  struck  plants.  Plants  to  be  taken 
up  from  the  flower-beds  should  previously  have  their  roots  cut  round,  and  then 
after  potting  should  be  placed  in  frames  or  in  the  green-house,  to  encourage 
fresh  roots.  Water  should  now  be  given  with  a careful  hand,  and  only  when 
necessary.  Bear  in  mind  that  bad  watering  is  the  great  cause  why  pot  plants 
so  often  languish  and  die. 


The  Garden 


141 


NOVEMBER. 

Orchard. 

Tree  planting  may  be  continued  all  this  month,  or  until  the  ground  becomes 
frozen.  All  dry  soils  work  better  and  easier  in  fall  than  spring,  and  all  hardy 
trees  succeed  as  well  or  better  transplanted  in  the  autumn.  All  apples  intended 
for  late  keeping  should  now  be  taken  to  the  cellar,  which  should  be  well  ventilated 
whenever  the  weather  will  permit. 

Vineyard. 

Grapevines  should  receive  their  pruning  back  this  month  for  next  spring’s 
growth.  As  to  the  number  of  bads  to  be  left  on  each  cane,  and  the  number  of 
canes  to  a vine,  much  depends  on  the  vigor  and  age  of  the  vine.  No  universal 
rule  can  be  laid  down  for  vineyard  pruning.  After  pruning,  lay  the  vines  upon 
the  ground,  and  cover  with  earth  or  leaves,  in  this  latitude  and  farther  north. 

J Farm. 

Continue  plowing  as  long  as  possible.  All  clayey  lands  if  plowed  deeply  and 
turned  up  rough  and  exposed  to  the  winter  frosts  will  improve  in  quality  fully  as 
much  as  the  covering  of  one  coat  of  manure  given  and  worked  in  in  the  spring. 
All  the  stock  should  now  be  taken  into  the  barns  and  well  cared  for.  Young  stock 
especially  should  be  well  fed  and  kept  growing  all  winter.  All  root  crops  left  in 
the  ground  should  be  at  once  secured,  either  in  the  cellar  or  in  pits  out  of  doors. 
Secure  a good  supply  of  fire  wood. 

Garden. 

Lose  no  time  in  attending  to  the  gathering  and  storing  of  roots  of  all  kinds. 
Cabbages,  celery,  etc.,  should  at  once  be  trenched  and  prepared  for  early  ob- 
tainment  in  winter.  Leave  no  fence  comers  or  by-places  occupied  with  heaps  of 
rubbish,  old  melon  vines,  bean  haulm,  etc.,  for  these  are  almost  invariably  the 
harbors  of  insects,  and  if  left  will  cause  you  to  regret  your  neglect  another  sea- 
son. Asparagus  beds,  if  not  already  done,  should  at  once  have  the  old  tops  mowed 
and  cleared  off,  a good  dressing  of  salt  given,  and  the  whole  covered  with  half- 
rotted  stable-manure,  say  three  inches  deep. 

Green-house. 

Admit  air  rather  freely  when  the  weather  will  permit.  Azaleas  for  blooming 
early,  keep  at  the  warmest  part  of  the  house.  If  the  buds  are  well  set,  and 
prominent,  and  the  heat  about  60  degrees,  some  will  be  in  bloom  by  Christ- 
mas ; those  once  forced  will  come  earlier  of  their  own  accord  again.  Those  for 
spring  flowering  keep  as  cool  as  possible,  so  that  the  temperature  is  above  35 
degrees.  The  buds  on  the  earliest  Camellias  wiL  now  be  swelling,  and  should  be 
placed  with  the  forward  Azaleas.  Cinerarias,  encourage  the  forwardest  to  grow 
in  a moist  gentle  heat ; chrysanthemums  encourage  with  manure  water.  Keep 
plants  clear  from  dirt  and  insects  by  washing  and  fumigation.  Temperature 
from  40°  to  45°  at  night.  Water  only  when  necessary.  Clean  pots,  paths,  stages, 
and  tie  and  train  plants  in  bad  weather. 


142 


The  Garden. 


DECEMBER. 

Orchard, 

All  fruit  trees  should  be  carefully  looked  over  at  this  season  for  the  purpose  of 
destroying  insects.  Borers  may  have  laid  themselves  up  cosily  for  winter  quar- 
ters in  the  bodies  of  the  trees.  Search  for  as  recommended  before.  The  eggs 
of  caterpillars  should  be  sought  for  on  the  small  branches  and  in  the  forks  of 
the  trees.  The  cocus,  or  scale  insect,  should  be  destroyed  by  washing  the  bodies 
and  limbs  of  trees  to  which  they  have  attached  themselves.  Strong  lye  water,  or 
a mixture  of  soft  soap  and  fresh-slacked  lime  will  destroy  them.  If  you  have 
not  yet  mulched  around  your  newly  planted  trees,  do  so  at  once. 

Vineyard, 

Pruning,  if  it  has  been  deferred,  should  be  completed  and  the  vines  laid  upon  the 
ground  and  covered.  If  the  wood  is  wanted  for  propagation,  cut  it  up  into  suit- 
able lengths  and  store  away  in  moist  sand  in  the  cellar. 

Farm, 

The  winter  is  often  a comparatively  leisure  season.  It  is  profitably  occupied  in 
most  cases  in  draining  wet  lands.  Make  the  ditches  narrow,  two  and  one  half 
to  three  feet  deep,  and  use  two-inch  tiles  for  the  primary  drains,  and  four  to  six 
in«h  tiles  for  the  main  or  outlets.  Cutting  wood,  getting  out  fence  posts,  and 
fencing  will  occupy  the  attention  of  the  farmer  now.  See  that  a good  stock  is 
now  provided,  that  work  may  not  be  interrupted  in  a hurrying  time.  All  kinds 
of  livestock  will  now  require  careful  attention ; see  that  they  are  properly  fed,  and 
with  a variety  of  food,  if  possible. 

Garden, 

The  hints  of  last  month,  if  heeded,  will  leave  but  little  to  be  done  now.  Look 
to  the  roots,  celery,  cabbages,  etc.,  stored  in  trenches  and  pits,  and  put  on  the 
final  winter  covering,  which  should  be  sufficient  to  exclude  entirely  the  frost. 
Keep  cold  frames  used  for  protection  of  cabbage  and  cauliflower  plants  well  aired 
at  all  favorable  opportunities. 

Green-hvuse, 

Admit  air  freely  when  the  external  temperature  is  above  35°,  especially  among 
plants  designed  for  late  blooming.  Azaleas  for  late  bloom,  keep  cool  those 
swelling  their  buds,  not  below  45°. 

Poinsettia  Pulcherima  will  make  a warm  green-house  gay  for  several  weeks. 
Chinese  Primrose,  water  with  liquid  manure  when  it  shows  flower  buds;  give 
the  Double  White  a favorable  and  warm  position.  Water  seldom ; be  regulated 
by  temperature,  evaporation,  and  the  wants  of  the  plants  ; when  the  flower  buds 
are  swelling  and  opening,  give  it  oftener  apd  after  breakfast,  and  with  the  water 
rather  higher  than  the  temperature  of  the  house. 


The  Flower  Garden. 


143 


VIII. 

THE  FLOWER  GARDEN 


God  might  have  bade  the  earth  bring  forth 
Enough  for  great  and  email, 

The  oak-tree  and  the  cedar-tree, 

Without  a flower  at  all. 

He  might  have  made  enough,  enough 
For  every  want  of  ours — 

For  luxury,  medicine,  and  toil, 

And  yet  have  made  no  flowers 

Our  outward  life  requires  them  not — 

Then  wherefore  have  they  birth  ? 

To  minister  delight  to  man  ; 

To  beautify  the  earth  ; 

To  comfort  man — to  whisper  hope' 

Whene’er  his  faith  is  dim  ; 

For  whoso  careth  for  the  flowers. 

Will  much  more  care  for  him. — Mary  Howitt. 


I.-INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS. 

£>E  who  loves  not  flowers,  and  grudges  the 
few  square  feet  of  soil  which  they  are 
grumblingly  permitted  to  occupy  in  a cor- 
ner of  his  garden,  may  skip  over  this 
chapter.  We  give  him  our  heartfelt  pity ; 
and  to  the  wife  or  daughter,  whose  more  re- 
fined and  elevated  tastes  have  not  allowed  him  to 
devote  his  front  yard  to  the  cultivation  of  potatoes 
and  cabbages,  we  offer  our  thanks. 

Had  we  room,  we  could  prove  even  to  the  devotee 
of  literal  utilitarianism,  that  the  flower  garden  has  its  uses — 
that  lilies  and  dahlias  have  quite  as  important  a mission  in  the 
world  as  beets  and  carrots ; but  we  must  forego  the  argu- 
ments and  illustrations  which  this  course  would  call  for,  and 


144 


The  Garden. 


confine  ourself  to  the  .ess  interesting,  but  perhaps  more  use- 
ful, details  which  follow. 

A word,  however,  to  'she  ladies,  to  whom  we  most  respect- 
fully dedicate  this  chapter.  We  shall  take  it  for  granted  that 
you  love  flowers ; for  we  hold  that  she  who  does  not,  is  no  true 
woman.  But  perhaps  you  are  ready  to  declare  that,  positively, 
you  have  no  time  to  devote  to  their  cultivation , that  you  have 
not  sufficient  strength  for  such  labor;  or,  possibly,  that  all 
out-of-door  employments  are  ungenteel  and  unfeminine. 

Unless  you  have  time  to  he  sick,  which  yon  will  hardly  ad- 
mit, you  have  time  to  take  care  of  your  health.  To  do  this 
properly,  you  must  have  daily  exercise  in  the  open  air.  Where 
can  you  take  this  more  pleasantly  or  more  profitably  than  in 
your  flower  garden  ? You  are  not  strong  enough,  do  you  say? 
This  is  just  the  way  to  acquire  strength.  Begin  very  moder- 
ately, allowing  some  stronger  person  to  do  the  heaviest  work. 
An  hour  or  two  of  light,  active,  and  pleasurable  employment, 
out-of-doors,  each  fair  day,  take  our  word  for  it,  will  prove 
more  beneficial  than  the  best  tonic  mixture  that  your  good  and 
much  respected  doctor,  with  all  his  skill,  can  prepare  for  you. 
Try  it.  You  will  soon  he  able  to  use  the  light  hoe  and  spade, 
which  we  recommend  you  to  procure  at  once,  with  ease  and 
pleasure.  The  quack’s  Female  Pills  find  few  patrons  among 
the  wives  and  daughters  who  cultivate  their  own  flower  gar- 
dens. The  idea  that  the  employment  is  unsuited  to  woman  is 
a preposterous  and  absurd  one.  Where  is  her  place  if  not 
among  the  flowers — herself  the  fairest  flower  of  all?  Shall 
she  blush  to  own  that  her  own  fair  hands  have  reared  the 
floral  gems  with  which  she  adorns  her  hair  ? But  we  rejoice 
in  believing  that  few  of  our  readers  will  urge  this  plea.  They 
will,  for  the  most  part,  fully  agree  with  us  that  floriculture 
should  have  a prominent  place  among  the  female  “ accomplish 
ments*** 

For  her  light  work,  a lady  requires  implements  made  spe- 
cially for  her  use.  A spade ; a hoe ; a rake ; a fork ; a trowel ; 
a watering-pot;  a pruning-knife ; a pair  of  small  shears;  a 


The  Flowee  Garden.  145 

basket,  for  the  weeds  and  clippings ; a small  hammer ; & ball 
of  twine;  a stout  apron,  with  pockets  for  the  pruning-knife, 
shears,  etc. ; a pair  of  strong  leather  gloves,  for  handling  prickly 
shrubs ; and  a pair  of  overshoes,  will  make  up  a very  good 
outfit.  The  implements  should  all  be  light,  and  of  the  best 
quality.  The  pruning-knife  should  be  kept  very  sharp.  Use 
it  for  cutting  slips,  and  for  removing  branches,  leaves,  etc. 
The  shears  are  used  for  clipping  hedges,  box,  borders,  etc. 

In  connection  with  her  gardening  operations,  we  recommend 
to  every  lady  who  has  sufficient  leisure  the  study  of  botany — 
both  structural  and  systematic. 

II.— LAYING  OUT  A FLOWER  GARDEN. 

To  attempt,  within  the  limits  of  a few  pages,  to  fully  instruct 
those  who  have  extensive  grounds  to  lay  out,  would  be  pre- 
sumptuous. Such  persons  will  need  to  study  Downing’s 
“ Landscape  Gardening,”  or  seek  the  aid  of  a practical  land- 
scape gardener.  Our  brief  hints  and  suggestions  are  intended 
for  those  whose  ornamental  grounds  are  measured  by  rods 
instead  of  acres. 

We  will  suppose  that,  as  is  generally  the  case,  you  wish  to 
devote  a portion  of  the  space  immediately  around  your  dwell- 
ing-house to  the  cultivation  of  flowers. 

If  the  distance  between  the  entrance  gate  and  the  house  be 
small,  you  must  be  content  with  a straight  walk  from  the  one 
to  the  other ; but  this  should  be  relieved,  and  its  necessary 
stiffness  somewhat  modified,  by  curved  side-walks,  branching 
from  the  main  walk  near  the  front  door,  and  running  back  to 
the  vegetable  garden  in  the  rear  of  the  house.  Where  the 
space  is  a little  greater,  the  straight  walk  should  not  be  toler- 
ated. It  may  be  curved  in  various  ways,  as  taste  may  sug- 
gest, and  the  nature  of  the  case  permit.  The  walks  may  all 
have  edgings  of  dwarf  box.  Hear  these  walks  we  recoin* 
mend  cutting  a sufficient  number  of  flower-beds  in  the  turf. 
This  gives  a much  more  beautiful  appearance  to  the  yard  than 
it  would  have  if  devoted  exclusively  to  flower-beds.  If  more 

7 


146 


The  Garden. 


space  be  wanted,  it  may,  perhaps,  be  found  behind  the  house* 
and  next  the  fruit  or  vegetable  garden.  The  beds  thus  cut  in 
the  turf  may  be  of  various  shapes  and  sizes,  but  should  always 
be  bounded  by  curved  lines.  The  grass-plots  in  which  they 
are  situated  should  be  kept  smoothly  shaven. 

In  arranging  the  plants  in  your  beds,  place  the  tallest  in  the 
center ; but  very  tall  growers,  like  the  hollyhocks  and  sun- 
flowers, should,  in  general,  be  disposed  as  a back-ground  in 
borders  next  the  walls.  So  arrange  all  the  kinds  that  the 
smaller  shall  not  be  hidden  or  too  much  shaded  by  the  larger, 
but  all  be  seen  in  their  order,  and  each  contribute  to  the  gen- 
eral effect.  Eeference  must  also  be  had  to  colors  and  their 
proper  combination.  It  is  well,  so  far  as  is  possible,  to  select 
plants  which  appear  well  through  the  season,  whether  in  blos- 
som or  not.  A constant  succession  of  flowers  in  each  bed 
may  be  secured  by  commencing  with  the  early  flowering  bulbs, 
following  these  with  the  best  herbaceous  perennials,  and  clos- 
ing with  a good  selection  of  annuals. 

Climbing  plants  of  various  kinds,  both  annual  and  perennial, 
if  judiciously  introduced,  add  greatly  to  the  beauty  of  the 
grounds  around  a dwelling.  Walls  may  be  mantled  with  them; 
doors  and  windows  en wreathed ; any  unsightly  object  hidden  ; 
arbors  covered ; and  posts  and  the  trunks  of  trees  entwined. 
They  may  also  be  permitted  to  trail  among  the  smaller  shrubs — 
care  being  taken,  of  course,  that  they  do  not,  in  their  luxuri- 
ance, overpower  or  hide  other  plants.  Various  kinds  of  sup- 
ports for  climbers  may  be  introduced  into  the  portions  of  the 
yard  devoted  to  trees  and  shrubs.  The  simplest  of  these  is  a 
single  upright  pillar  of  cedar  or  other  durable  wood  in  its 
rough  bark,  or  a sawed  piece  of  timber  with  holes  bored 
through  it  at  regular  intervals,  through  which  the  leading 
shoots  may  be  drawn  as  they  advance  in  growth.  Prairie 
roses,  bignomas,  and  other  hardy  climbers,  if  skillfully  trained, 
make  a very  handsome  appearance  on  such  pillars.  Two 
climbing  roses,  of  unlike  colors,  may  be  thus  trained  together 
with  a fine  effect.  These  posts  should  be  nine  or  ten  feet  high. 


The  Flower  Garden. 


147 


In  some  cases  it  is  better  to  drive  strong  wooden  rods  through 
the  holes  we  have  spoken  of,  for  the  support  of  the  climber. 
Slender  climbers,  like  the  cypress  vine  and  the  morning  glory, 
require  a lighter  and  more  elegant  support. 

In  the  arrangement  of  the  shrubs  and  trees  the  same  prin- 
ciple applies  as  to  the  herbaceous  plants.  "We  should  endeavor 
to  produce  the  effect  of  banks,  and  irregular  and  picturesque 
conical  masses  of  foliage,  rising  higher  as  they  recede  from  the 
eye.  We  therefore  place  the  larger  growing  kinds  in  the  back 
row,  or  in  the  center  of  a group,  as  the  case  may  be ; some- 
what smaller  ones  next  in  order,  and  still  smaller  ones  in  front. 

III.-GENERAL  directions. 

Our  very  limited  space  will  not  permit  us  to  go  into  details 
in  reference  to  the  cultivation  of  flowers.  With  a few  general 
directions,  however,  one  may  get  on  very  well  in  the  manage- 
ment of  a small  flower  garden.  What  is  most  needed  is  some 
guide  in  the  selection  of  plants  to  be  cultivated ; and  this  we 
shall  furnish  in  the  next  section. 

1.  Soil,  etc. — For  most  kinds  of  flowers  a rather  sandy  soil, 
well  enriched  with  vegetable  mold  and  well-rotted  stable  man- 
ure, is  the  best.  It  must  be  thoroughly  broken  up  or  pulver- 
ized before  planting.  This  is  even  more  necessary  here  than 
in  the  kitchen  garden.  The  ground  should  be  dug  to  the  depth 
of  fifteen  inches,  and  raised  a few  inches  above  the  general 
level  of  the  garden  or  yard. 

2.  Annual  and  Biennial  Plants. — Annual*  and  biennial! 
plants  are  in  general  very  easy  of  cultivation,  merely  requir- 
ing, in  a majority  of  cases,  to  be  sown  where  they  are  to 
bloom,  thinned  out  (with  a few  exceptions,  which  will  be  noted 
in  their  place)  to  give  them  room,  and  kept  free  from  weeds. 

Never  sow  till  the  soil  has  become  tolerably  warm  and  dry, 
as  some  flower-seeds  are  very  liable  to  rot  in  the  ground.  In 


* Annual  plants  are  those  which  live  but  one  year, 
t Biennial  plants  are  such  as  endure  two  years ; blooming  on  the  second. 


148 


The  Garden. 


this  climate,  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  first  of  May,  i» 
ordinary  seasons,  will  be  sufficiently  early  for  most'  of  them. 
A little  farther  north,  from  the  first  to  the  middle  of  May  will 
be  the  average  time.  The  smaller  seeds  must  be  very  lightly 
covered,  hut  larger  ones,  like  the  lupines,  may  be  covered  to 
the  depth  of  two  inches.  It  is  a good  way  to  sow  in  small 
circles — say  from  four  to  nine  inches  in  diameter.  In  the  cen- 
ter of  this  circle  place  a tally,  or  label  of  some  kind,  with  the 
name,  to  prevent  mistakes.  Soon  after  they  come  up,  the  soil 
must  be  carefully  stirred,  the  plants  thinned  out,  if  they  re- 
quire it,  and  all  weeds  removed.  A few  kinds  do  better  with 
transplanting  than  to  remain  where  they  are  sown.  Of  this 
nature  are  the  balsams,  the  China  aster,  the  marigold,  th6 
hibiscus,  and  the  zinnia,  and  several  other  very  free-growing 
plants. 

3.  Bulbs. — The  best  season  for  planting  hardy  bulbous  roots, 
such  as  the  lilies,  peonies,  etc.,  is  late  in  autumn,  but  they 
may  be  set  out  in  December  if  the  ground  be  not  frozen,  and 
the  bulbs  remain  sound. 

“ Hyacinths,  Amaryllis,  Martagon,  and  other  large  lilies,  and 
peonies,  should  be  planted  at  the  depth  of  four  inches ; Crown 
Imperials  and  Polyanthus  Narcissus,  five  inches ; Tulips,  Double 
Narcissus,  Jonquilles,  and  Colchicums,  three  inches ; Bulbous 
Iris,  Crocus,  Arums,  small  Fritillarias,  Gladiolus  Byzantium, 
and  Snowdrops,  two  inches ; Ranunculus  and  Anemones,  one 
inch  ; always  measuring  from  the  top  of  the  bulb.  The  roots 
should  be  placed  from  four  to  six  inches  apart,  according  to 
their  size. 

“ Take  up  bulbous  roots  about  a month  after  the  blossom  is 
completely  over,  in  the  following  manner : When  the  plants 
put  on  a yellowish,  decayed  appearance,  take  up  the  roots,  cut 
off  the  stem  and  foliage  within  an  inch  of  the  bulbs,  but  leave 
the  fibers,  etc.,  attached  to  them ; spread  them  in  an  airy  room 
for  two  or  three  weeks  to  dry,  after  which  wrap  each  root 
carefully  in  paper  (as  the  air  is  very  injurious  to  bulbs),  or 
oover  them  in  sand  perfectly  dry.” 


The  Flower  Garden 


149 


4.  Shrubs. — Flowering-shrubs  may  be  planted  out  so  soon 
as  the  frost  is  out  and  the  ground  sufficiently  dry,  which  wil1 
generally  be  in  April.  The  same  general  directions  apply  as 
have  already  been  given  for  trees.  Tall  shrubs  should  he  sup- 
ported for  a while  by  a stake.  The  roots  must  not  he  permit- 
ted to  dry  before  planting ; and  if  they  are  to  he  carried  to  a 
distance,  they  must  be  kept  from  the  air  by  means  of  moss,  or 
straw  mats  hound  about  them. 

IY. — LISTS  OF  FLOWERING  PLANTS  AND  SHRUBS. 

We  now  proceed  to  give  lists  of  choice  herbaceous  plants 
and  flowering  shrubs.  We  might  make  our  catalogues  much 
more  extensive,  and  still  fail  to  embrace  all  that  are  desirable 
in  particular  localities  and  under  particular  circumstances. 
We  trust  that  they  will  he  found  useful,  if  not  wholly  satis- 
factory, to  the  novice.  For  the  professional  gardener,  of  course, 
we  do  not  write. 

HARDY  ANNUALS. 

1.  Blue  Flowered  Argeratum  {Argeratum  Mexicanum). — Color,  blue; 
height,  one  foot ; in  bloom  all  the  season. 

2.  Sweet  Altssum  (A.  calycina). — White : fragrant ; six  inches  ; all  season. 

3.  Love  Lies  Bleeding  {Amaranthus  caudatus). — Red  and  yellow ; sum. 

4.  Prince’s  Feather  (A.  hypochondriacus). — Red  ; summer. 

5.  Three-colored  Amaranth  (A.  tricolor).— Is  most  beautiful  on  rather 
poor  soil ; summer 

6.  Pheasant’s  Eye  ( Adonis  miniata).— Red  ; showy ; summer. 

7.  China  Aster  (A.  Chinensis). — Various  colors;  some  lately  imported 
varieties  are  very  beautiful ; eighteen  inches  ; summer. 

8.  Cockscomb  ( Celosia  cristatd).— Crimson  ; eighteen  inches  ; autumn. 

9.  Sweet  Sultan  ( Centaurea  of  species). — ( G '.  moschatd ),  purple ; (<7.  ere* 
tied),  white ; ( G . suaveolens ),  yellow ; two  feet ; summer. 

10.  Morning  Glory  ( Convolvulus  major).— Various ; climbing;  summer 
and  autumn. 

11.  Dwarf  Morning  Glory  (<7.  minor). — Blue ; eighteen  inches ; summer. 

12.  Chryseis  ( 0, '.  crocea).— Orange ; one  foot ; all  the  season ; ( C '.  Californicd) 

yellow. 

13.  Lupine  ( Lupinus  of  species).— Many  varieties;  various;  one  to  five 
feet ; some  are  perennial. 

14.  Cypress  Vine  ( Ipomoea  of  species). — (7.  quamoclit),  crimson;  (I.  alba), 
white ; climbing ; summer  and  autumn.  I.  coccinea , a native  Southern  plant 
Is  generally  classed  with  the  morning  glories ; red ; climbing ; autumn. 


150 


The  Garden 


15.  Phlox  ( P . Drummondii). — Crimson;  rose,  lilac,  and  white;  (P.  Von 
Eoutii),  variegated ; two  feet ; all  the  season. 

16.  Zinnia  (Z.  elegans).— Y arious  ; two  feet ; very  showy ; should  be  watered 
copiously ; all  the  season. 

17.  Balsam,  ok  Ladies’  Slipper  (Balsamina  hortensis).—Y arious ; two  feet 
summer  and  autumn. 

IS.  Mignonette  ( Reseda  odorata). — Yellowish  green  ; six  inches ; chiefly 
valued  for  its  perfume  ; all  the  season. 

19.  Nasturtium  ( Tropceolum  atrosanguvneum).— Crimson  ; climbing ; in 
bloom  all  the  season. 

20.  Canary  Bird  Flower  (T.  aduncurri). — A beautiful  climber. 

21.  Portulaoca  (P.  splendens). — Purple ; splendid ; (P.  Thorburnii),  yel- 
low ; (P.  alba ),  white ; (P.  elegans ),  crimson ; (P.  Thellusonii ),  red ; should 
be  grown  in  a mass  to  give  the  finest  effect. 

22.  Malope  (37.  grandijlora).— Scarlet  and  white ; three  feet ; summer. 

23.  Ten-week-stock  (Mathiola  awnua). — At  least  a dozen  distinct  colors ; 
one  foot ; summer.  All  the  varieties  are  well  worthy  of  cultivation. 

24.  Marigold  ( Tagetes  erecta).— Orange,  yellow,  straw-colored;  eighteen 
inches;  autumn.  French  Marigold  (T.  patula ),  striped  with  deep  brown, 
purple,  and  yellow. 

25.  Clarkia  (C.  elegans)  .—Rose-colored ; elegant ; ((7.  Pulchella),  purple ; 
showy  ; (C.  alba),  white  ; one  foot;  all  the  season. 

26.  Candytuft  (Iberis  amara).— White ; (7.  umbellata),  purple;  (7.  vio- 
lacea ),  violet ; (7.  odorata ),  sweet-scented.  All  these  species  are  desirable. 

27.  Larkspur  ( Delphinum  ajacis). — Many  varieties,  double  flowered,  and 
superb.  Branching  Larkspur  (P.  consolida ),  various  colors ; summer. 

28.  Three-colored  Gilia  ( G . tricolor). — Light-blue  margin  and  dark  cen- 
ter; dwarf;  summer. 

29.  Poppy  (Papaver  Marseillify.—Ythite,  edged  with  red ; eighteen  inches ; 
summer. 

30.  Sweet  Pea  (Lathy ms  odoratus).—YLany  varieties— white,  black,  scarlet, 
and  variegated ; three  or  four  feet ; summer  and  autumn. 

31.  Hibiscus  (IT.  manihot). — Yellow;  (H.  Africanus  major),  buff,  with  a 
black  center ; two  feet ; summer. 

82.  Clintonia  (C.  elegans).— Blue ; six  inches;  very  slender;  autumn. 

33.  Verbena  (F  of  species).— Every  shade  of  color  from  white  to  crimson; 
procumbent ; very  pretty ; all  the  season. 

34.  Dwarf  Sunflower  (Helianthus  Calif ornicus).—K  double  flower. 

35.  Sun  Love  (Heliophila  araboides).— Blue ; very  pretty. 

86.  Pansy  (Viola  tricolor).— Various ; all  the  season.  [A  perennial,  but 
treated  as  an  annual.] 

37.  Petunia  (P.  molacea).—'Elverj  variety  of  color ; dwarf ; all  the  season. 

38.  Yellow  Everlasting  (Xerantheum  of  species). — Eighteen  inches  ; ant, 

39.  Evening  Primrose  (CEnothera  macrocarpa). — Yellow  ; large  flowered 
dwarf;  summer  and  autumn. 

40.  Loasa  (L.  lateritia).— Orange  colored  ; a beautiful  climbing  plant. 

41.  Calandrinia  (C.  discolor).— Eosy  purple ; very  fine  ; sum.  and  autumc. 


The  Flowek  Garden. 


151 


42.  Calliopsis  (C.  tricolor).— Three  feet;  very  showy;  autumn. 

43.  Marvel  of  Peru  ( MiraMlis  Jala/pa). — Many  varieties ; autumn. 

44.  Grove  Love  {Nemophila  maculata). — Spotted  ; beautiful. 

45.  Heliotrope  (Tournefortiaheliotropioides.)— White  and  blue;  very  fra» 
grant;  autumn. 

46.  Love-in- a-Mist  (Nigella  Damacena).— Showy ; autumn. 

For  twelve  sorts,  tlie  following  would  be  a good  selection : 
Numbers  1,  2,  7,  9,  10, 14,  15,  21,  23,  25,  33,  and  37.  To  make 
up  twenty  sorts  add  6,  11,  13,  16,  19,  22,  29,  and  41. 

HAEDY  BIENNIALS. 

1.  Kobe  Campion  (. Agrostemma  corcnaria). — Blooms  all  summer. 

2.  Foxglove  ( Digitalis  of  species). — Purple,  white,  and  spotted. 

3.  Canterbury  Bell  ( Campanula  of  species). — Various;  blooms  in  July 
and  August. 

4.  Hollyhock  ( Althea  roesa.y- All  its  varieties  ; summer  and  autumn.  De- 
sirable varieties  can  be  propagated  by  diviumg  the  roots.  Biennial-perennia*. 

5.  Gerardia  ( G . of  species).— Yellow,  purple,  and  spotted. 

6.  Dwarf  Evening  Primrose  ( CEnothera  corymbosa). 

7.  Humea  (H.  elegans).— All  the  season. 

8.  Catch  Fly  (> Silene  multifiord). 

9.  Musk-Scented  Scabious  (> Scabiosa  atropurpurea). 

10.  Naked-Stemmed  Poppy  ( Papaver  nudicaule). 

Though  all  the  biennials  are  generally  propagated  by  seeds, 
the  double  ones  may  also  be  successfully  continued  by  cuttings 
and  slips  of  the  tops,  and  by  layers  and  pipings.  Biennials,  it 
should  be  remembered,  never  flower  till  the  second  year. 

HAEDY  PEEENNIALS.* 

1.  HERBACEOUS  PLANTS.+ 

1.  Columbine  ( Aquilegia  vulgaris). — Single  and  double,  and  many  colors. 

2.  Harebell  ( Campanula  of  species). — All  the  species  of  this  genus  are 
very  beautiful.  Flowers  single  and  double;  many  colors.  C.  grandiflora 
has  superb  blue  flowers. 

3.  Carnation  ( Dianthus  caryophyllus).— A much  noted  and  very  beautiful 
flower ; propagated  by  seeds  and  by  layers. 

4.  Sweet  William  (Z>.  barbaPus). — Many  colors  and  shades  of  color — white, 
red,  pink,  and  crimson.  The  French  call  it  boquet  parfait. 


* Perennial  plants  are  those  which  endure  from  year  to  year  indefinitely, 
t Those  which  die  down  to  the  root  every  year.  In  a restricted  sense  (in 
which  we  use  it  here),  the  term  herbaceous  is  not  made  to  include  the  bulbous 
and  tuberous  rooted  plants. 


152 


The  Garden 


5.  Pink  {D.  plumarius). — Many  varieties. 

6.  Chrysanthemum  {Py  rethrum  of  species). — Varieties  and  colors  number 
less ; the  last  showy  flower  of  the  season.  The  following  are  all  very  beautiful 


LARGE  FLOWERED. 

Defiance— lemon-yellow. 

Baron  de  Solomon— rosy-crimson. 
Julia  Langdale— rosy-purple. 
Liencour — lilac  and  orange. 
Magnificent— blush. 

Mrs.  Cope— crimson-purple. 
Sphinx— bright  claret. 

White  Perfection — pure  white. 


SMALL  FLOWERED. 

La  Fiancee — white. 

Harriette  Lebois— rosy-carmine. 
Cybelle-  amber  and  gold. 
Mignonette— ^ose. 

V artigene— crimson. 

Paquerette — white-shaded  crimson. 
Sacramento— dark  yellow,  red  center. 
Louise — pale  rose. 


7.  Double  Daisy  {Beilis  perennis).— Many  varieties  and  various  shades  of 
white,  pink,  and  crimson. 

8.  Dielytra  {D.  spectabilis).—A  very  beautiful  plant;  flowers  pink  and 
white ; June  and  July. 

9.  Foxglove  ( Digitalis  of  species). — Various  and  beautiful.  Theoretically 
a biennial ; but  may  be  continued  by  dividing  into  off-sets. 

10.  Gentian  ( Gentiana  of  species). — Blue,  yellow,  and  white ; very  showy. 

11.  Geranium  ( Pelargonium  of  species). — Species  numerous ; varieties  num- 
berless. For  bedding  plants  the  Scarlet,  the  Nutmeg-scented  (white),  and  the 
Eose  are  the  most  desirable. 

12.  Forget-me-Not  ( Myosotis  sylvattca). — Blue,  pretty,  and  indispensable. 

13.  Hollyhock  ( Althea  rosa).— We  have  mentioned  this  among  the  bien- 
nials, where  it  theoretically  belongs  ; but  it  is  practically  a perennial,  from  the 
way  in  which  it  increases  by  off-sets.  Hollyhocks  are  very  beautiful  in  their 
proper  places — in  borders  and  among  shrubbery.  The  varieties  and  colors 
are  numberless.  Choose  the  double-flowering  sorts. 

14.  Lupine  ( Lupinus  of  species).— Some  of  the  perennial  herbaceous  sorts 
are  very  beautiful ; early  in  summer. 

15.  Double  Eagged  Eobbin  {Lychnis  of  species).— Scarlet  and  white. 

16.  Pansy,  or  Heartsease  ( Viola  tricolor).— Varieties  innumerable  ; some- 
times treated  as  an  annual ; blooms  all  the  season. 

17.  Violet  ( Viola  of  species). — Many  of  the  species,  both  native  and  foreign, 
deserve  a place  in  the  garden.  Of  V odorata  plena , the  white  and  purple 
varieties  are  very  beautiful ; bloom  early. 

18.  Phlox  (P.  of  species).— Various  colors ; no  garden  should  be  without 
some  of  the  perennial  species ; summer. 

19.  Veronica  {V  chamcedrys). — Blue  flowers;  a good  border  plant;  early 
in  summer. 

20.  Valerian  ( V.  hortensis  et  V.  Pyrmaica). — White  and  red ; grow  and 
bloom  well  on  walls  and  rock-work. 


Nearly  all  the  foregoing  plants  are  easily  propagated  by 
dividing  the  roots,  and  will  grow  in  any  garden  soil.  A few 
of  them  will  not  prove  hardy  north  of  New  York 


The  Flower  Garden. 


153 


2.  TUBEROUS-ROOTED  PLANTS. 

1.  Dahlia  (Z>.  variabilis). — Colors  and  varieties  numberless ; a splendid 
autumn  flower  for  large  beds  and  among  shrubbery.  The  following  are  a few 
of  the  finest  varieties : 

Amazone — yellow,  margined  with  carmine. 

Anna  Maria — violet,  tipped  with  white. 

Belle  Amazone — bright  yellow,  edged  with  gold. 

Favorite — dark  carmine. 

Gazelle — delicate  blush. 

Grand  Sultan—  dark  purple,  with  light  edges. 

Emperitrice  Eugenie— black  brown. 

Madame  Becker— maroon,  tipped  with  white 

Malvina— purple,  shaded  with  darker  purple. 

Benuncale  Imperiale— lilac  and  purple. 

Prdtrose— dark  carmine. 

Wonderful— dark  yellow,  with  purple  stripes. 

2.  Iris  (/.  of  species). — More  than  fifty  species,  some  of  which  are  tuberous- 
rooted ; all  very  beautiful.  I.  susiana  is  the  finest ; flowers  large  and  spotted 
with  brown. 

3.  Marvel  of  Peru  {Mirabilis  Jalapa). — Generally  treated  as  an  annual 
very  beautiful ; requires  a warm  border. 

4.  Everlasting  Pea  ( Lat/iyrus  of  species). — The  common  Everlasting  Pea 
is  L.  lattfolius.  Once  planted  it  will,  for  the  most  part,  take  care  of  itself. 
Some  of  the  species  are  annuals. 

5.  Peony  (P.  officinalis).— Many  varieties.  The  Chinese  Peony  (P.  fra - 
grans)  has  pinky-purple  flowers  and  a rose-like  perfume. 

6.  Eanunculus  (P.  of  species). — Several  species  are  hardy  and  desirable  for 
border-plants.  The  Double  Buttercup  (P.  acris)  is  well  known. 

7.  Ladies’  Slipper  ( Cypripedium  of  species). — Several  species  are  native* 
of  our  woods ; very  beautiful,  but  difficult  of  propagation. 

8.  Anemone  (A.  of  species).— Many  species ; white,  purple,  yellow,  and  scar- 
let ; succeed  best  in  cool  latitudes.  Our  native  Wood  Anemone  ( A . nemorosa ) 
deserves  mention  among  the  garden  flowers. 

The  tuberous-rooted  plants  are  propagated  by  tubers,  and 
some  of  them  also  by  seeds.  Dahlias  require  a sandy  soil. 
Sand  and  vegetable  mold  make  a good  mixture  for  them.  ]STo 
animal  manure  should  be  applied. 

8.  BULBOUS-ROOTED  PLANTS. 

1.  Crocus  {G.  of  species). — Many  species,  yellow,  lilac,  white,  etc.  Tho 
Yellow  Crocus  {C.  luteus)  is  the  greatest  favorite.  The  Spring  Flowering  ( 0 
vernus)  works  in  well  among  shrubs  and  trees,  blooms  early  in  the  spring. 

2.  Crown  Imperial  ( Fritillaria  Imperialist. — Color  varies  from  light  yel- 
low to  orange  red ; showy ; suitable  for  borders. 


154 


The  Garden 


3.  Hyacinth  ( Hycu.inthus  Orientalis).— Varieties  innumerable;  choose  an 
assortment  of  various  colors. 

4.  I ms  (7.  of  species). — Of  the  bulbous  species,  the  Persian  (/.  Persica)  ie 
the  most  beautiful,  but  does  better  in  a pot  or  frame,  with  some  protection. 

5.  Lily  ( IAlium  of  species). — The  species  are  very  numerous,  and  all  very 
beautiful.  The  following  is  a selection : 

Common  White  (Z.  candidvm). 

Double  White  (Z.  candidvm Jlore  pUno) 

Scarlet  (Z.  chalcedonicmn). 

Japan  (Z.  lancifolium  of  var.) — white,  red,  rose,  spotted ; very  beautiful 

Turk’s  Cap  (Z.  martagon) — various. 

Tiger  (Z.  tigrinum). 

6.  Narcissus  (jV.  tazettd). — Yellow  and  white  variously  combined ; varieties 
numerous. 

. Daffodil  < W.  pseudo  narcissus).— Many  varieties. 

8.  Jonquil  {IT.  jonquilla).— Bright  yel. ; fragrant;  requires  copious  watering. 

9.  Snowdrop  ( Galanthus  nivalis). — Double  and  single ; both  desirable. 

10.  Squill  (> Scilla  of  species).— Blue  and  white ; 8.  amoena  and  8.  Sib  erica 
are  exceedingly  brilliant  and  beautiful ; blossom  early  in  spring. 

11.  Star  of  Bethlehem  ( Ornithogalum  of  species). — White  and  variegated; 
easy  of  cultivation. 

12.  Tulip  ( Tulipa  Gesneriana). — Varieties  innumerable  and  of  every  shade. 
There  are  early  and  late  sorts.  Choose  some  of  both. 

FLOWERING  SHRUBS. 


1.  Rose  {Rosa  of  species). — Multitudinous  in  species  and  countless  in  variety* 
No  two  persons  would  make  the  same  selection.  For  the  few  sorts  wanted  in 
a common  garden,  we  suggest  the  following : 


hybrid  perpetual  roses. 

Augusta  Mie— blush. 

Geant  des  Battailles— brilliant  crimson. 
Caroline  de  Sansal — flesh  color. 

Lord  Raglan — fiery  crimson. 

Matharin  Regina-lilac. 

General  J aqueminot—  crimson-scarlet. 
Mrs.  Elliott— rosy-purple. 

Duchess  d’Orleans— rosy-carmine. 
Baron  Hallez— light  crimson. 

Bydonie — light  pink. 

Baron  Prevost— deep  rose. 

La  Reine — deep  rosy  lilac. 

Louis  Peronny — deep  rose,  shaded. 

perpetual  moss  roses. 
Madam  Edward  Ory— rosy  carmine. 


Marie  de  Burgoyne— clear  red. 

Salet— bright  rosy  red. 

General  Drouot— purplish  crimson. 
Perpetual  White— pure  white. 

SUMMER  ROSES. 

Coupe  de  Hebe— brilliant  pink. 

Paul  Ricaut— rosy  crimson. 

Perle  de  Panche— white  and  red. 
Persian  Yellow— deep  golden  yellow. 
Madame  Plantier — pure  white. 
climbing  roses. 

Queen  of  the  Prairies — red,  striped 
with  white. 

Baltimore  Belle— blush,  nearly  wbit€t 
Mrs.  Hovey— pale  blush. 

Perpetual  Pink— purple  pink. 


The  Flower  Garden.  155 

2.  Rhododendron  (R.  Catawbiense).— This  splendid  American  flowering 
shrub  is  worthy  of  a place  in  every  garden. 

3.  Azalia  (A.  mcosa  et  A.  nudiflora). — White  and  purple;  fragrant;  too 
much  neglected. 

4.  Flowering  Almond  (. Amygdalms  nan  a).—  Beautiful  pink  flowers. 
Very  desirable  in  every  garden.  Spring. 

5.  Magnolia  (J/.  abovata). 

6.  Tree  Peony  (P.  Moutari). 

7.  Japan  Quince  (Pyrus  Japonica  of  var.). — Scarlet  and  white ; very  early 
n the  spring. 

8.  Japan  Globe  Flower  (. Kerria  Japonica). — Double  yellow  flowers. 
Showy.  Spring. 

9.  Spiraea  (&  of  species). — Many  very  beautiful  species.  The  Lance-Leaved 
Spiraea  (S.  lancolaU ) is  the  most  beautiful  of  all.  Flowers,  white ; blooms  in 
May.  Very  desirable  indeed. 

10.  Deutzia  (D.  gracilis  et  D.  scabra). — Flowers  white.  D.  scabra  is  the 
more  hardy.  Both  should  be  cultivated  where  the  climate  will  permit. 

11.  Guelder  Rose  or  Snowball  Tree  ( Viburnum  opulus). 

12.  Garden  Hydrangea  (II.  Ilortensis)  —White  flowers. 

13.  Lilac  (Syringia  of  species). -Some  of  the  new  varieties  are  very  fine. 

14.  Pomegranate  (Granatum Jlore  pleno).— Beautiful;  should  be  a favorite 
wherever  the  climate  is  sufficiently  mild. 

15.  Sweet  Scented  Shrub  (Calycanthus  Floridus). 

16.  Althea  or  Rose  of  Sharon  (Hibiscus  Syricus). — Many  varieties. 

17.  Honeysuckle  (Lonicera  of  species). — Beautiful  shrubs. 

18.  Pink  Mezereum  (Daphne  mez&reum).— Dwarf,  pretty ; flowers  in  March. 

19.  Rose  Acacia  ( Robina  hispida). 

20.  Mock  Orange  ( Philadelphus  coronarus).— White ; fragrant.  May  ana 
June. 

21.  Forsythia  (F.  vividissima). — A magnificent  new  shrub  from  China; 
flowers  bright  yellow  ; very  early  in  spring. 

22.  Crimson  Currant  (Ribes  sanguineum).— Single  and  double  crimson; 
early  in  spring. 

23.  Ashberry  (Mthonia  aquifolia).— Evergreen ; bright  yellow  flowers, 
blossoms  very  early  in  spring. 

24.  Rose-Colored  Wiegela  (W.  rosea).— Delicate  rose-colored  blossoms. 

25.  Silver  Bell  (Halesia  of  species).— II.  diptera  is  much  finer  than  the 
eommon  Silver  Bell  ( H \ tetraptera). 

CLIMBERS  AND  CREEPERS. 

1.  Virginia  Creeper  (Ampelopsis  hederaced). 

2.  Trumpet  Flower  (Tecoma  radicans*), 

3.  Clematis  (C.  of  species).— Several  species;  white,  blue,  and  purple.  Th« 
Sweet  Scented  (C.Jlamula)  is  exceedingly  fragrant. 


* Gray ; the  Bignonia  of  the  old  botanists. 


156 


The  Garden 


4.  Ivy  ( Eedera  of  species). 

5.  Honeysuckle  ( Lonicera  of  species).— The  Sweet  Scented  (Z.  JSelgtca)  is 
one  of  the  most  desirable  species ; in  bloom  through  the  summer ; very  fra- 
grant. The  Chinese  Evergreen  {II.  sinensis)  is  also  a very  fine  sort. 

6.  Chinese  Wistaria  (IE  sinensis). — A very  beautiful  climbing 
blue  flowers  in  clusters. 

7.  Climbing  Eose  {Rosa  of  species).— For  these,  see  preceding  list. 

8.  Jasmine  {Jasminum  revolutum). — Bright  golden  flowers ; very  fragrant. 
Southern.  Deserves  a place  in  every  garden  at  the  South. 

9.  Passion  Flower  (. Passijiora  of  species)  — The  most  beautiful  one  is  the 
Purple  Flowering  {P.  incarnata). 

10.  Birth  wort  or  Dutchman’s  Pipe  {Aristolochia  sipho).— An  excellent 
arbor  vino. 


Ornamental  Trees  and  Shrubs.  157 


IX. 


IRNA MENTAL  TREES  AND  SHRUBS. 

Happy  Is  he  who  In  a country  life 
Shuns  more  perplexing  toll  and  jarring  strife  ; 

Who  lives  upon  the  natal  soil  he  loves, 

And  sits  beneath  his  old  ancestral  groves. 

I.-GENERAL  HINTS. 

? APPY  indeed  is  he 

Who  lives  upon  the  natal  soil  he  loves, 

And  sits  beneath  his  old  ancestral  grovei ; 

but  this  happiness  is  the  lot  of  compara- 
tively few  in  this  country.  Our  forefathers 
were  too  deeply  absorbed  in  the  work  of  hewing 
down  forests  to  think  of  planting  groves,  or  to  ap- 
preciate their  beauty.  They  waged  a war  of  exter- 
mination against  trees,  and,  so  far  as  they  went, 
nothing  but  blackened  stumps  and  unsightly  skeletons 
remained.  The  effects  of  their  indiscriminate  “ clearing”  have 
been  partially  remedied  in  the  older  portions  of  the  country 
(for  which  more  thanks  to  nature  than  to  man) ; but  even 
there  the  language  of  our  motto  applies  to  only  a few.  Each 
man’s  natal  soil  is  in  the  hands  of  a stranger.  What  American 
lives  where  his  father  and  grandfather  lived  and  died?  We 
have  been  a migratory  people.  It  will  not  always  be  so,  how- 
ever, and  if  we  can  not,  except  in  rare  cases,  “sit  beneath  our 
old  ancestral  groves,”  we  may  yet  sit  beneath  those  of  our  own 
planting — may  learn  to 

Love  our  own  cotemporary  trees, 

and  die  with  the  hope  that  our  children  and  grandchildren  may 
enjoy  their  shade  after  we  have  ceased  to  need  it. 


153 


The  Garden. 


The  exhortation,  u Plant  trees!  plant  trees!”  which  has  gone 
forth  of  late,  and  been  so  often  reiterated,  has  not  fallen  upon 
heedless  ears.  Thousands  have  obeyed  it,  and  tens  of  thou- 
sands stand  ready,  and  only  wait  to  be  told  what  trees  to  plant, 
and  how  to  plant  them. 

For  planting  trees,  we  have  already  given  such  general  direc- 
tions as  the  limits  of  our  work  would  permit.  With  a careful 
attention  to  the  fundamental  principles  set  forth  in  the  first  and 
second  chapters,  these  directions  will  be  found  sufficient.  It 
remains  for  us  to  add  a few  hints  on  arrangement,  etc.,  and  to 
give  lists  of  the  most  desirable  species  for  common  use,  as 
ornamental  and  shade  trees  and  shrubs. 

As  a border  for  a straight  road  or  street,  we  must,  of  neces- 
sity, have  a straight  row  of  trees,  if  any ; but  in  laying  out  the 
road  or  street,  simple  utility,  and  not  beauty,  was  the  end  in 
view.  In  laying  out  ornamental  grounds,  straight  lines  and  a 
geometrical  arrangement  of  objects  must  be  avoided;  and  any 
necessary  straight  line,  like  a boundary  fence,  should  be  wholly 
or  partially  hidden,  and  its  effect  neutralized,  by  curving  rows 
and  irregular  groups  of  trees  and  shrubs. 

This  principle  applies  to  the  smallest  village  plot  as  well  as 
to  the  extensive  park.  Something  may  be  done  in  arrangement 
and  grouping  to  produce  a pleasing  and  beautiful  or  picturesque 
effect,  in  a very  limited  space.  To  tell  the  reader  how,  in 
detail,  would  require  a volume.  The  hint  we  have  just  dropped 
will  at  least  lead  him  to  think  and  inquire.  His  own  taste, 
once  awakened,  will  do  the  rest. 

Do  not,  we  beg  of  you,  distort  and  deform  your  ornamental 
trees  by  trimming.  If  any  accident  or  unnatural  condition 
may  have  caused  a tree  to  grow  into  an  ungraceful  and  unnat- 
ural shape,  you  may,  by  a judicious  use  of  the  pruning-knife, 
aid  it  to  return  to  its  natural  form ; but  you  can  not  improve  a 
free-growing  and  symmetrical  tree.  If  it  put  out  branches  near 
the  ground,  do  not,  by  any  means,  remove  them.  Therein 
consists  much  of  the  beauty  of  many  of  our  handsoim»t  trees, 
especially  the  evergreens. 


Ornamental  Trees  and  Shrubs.  159 


Other  things  being  equal,  preference  should  be  given  to 
native  trees  and  shrubs,  and  we  have  so  many  beautiful  species 
that  but  few  foreign  ones  need  be  placed  on  our  lists. 

Trees  taken  from  the  nursery  or  forest  before  they  can  be 
used  must  be  “ heeled  in” — that  is,  their  roots  must  be  placed 
in  a trench  prepared  for  the  purpose,  and  covered  with  earth. 
Roots  left  exposed  to  the  sun  and  winds  soon  lose  their  vitality. 
Avoid  the  common  error  of  too  deep  planting.  The  tree  should 
be  set  only  two  or  three  inches  deeper  than  it  stood  before,  in 
the  nursery  or  forest,  to  allow  for  the  settling  of  the  soil. 

II.— LISTS  OF  TREES  AND  SHRUBS. 

Those  who  desire  more  extensive  lists  to  select  from  than 
our  space  allows  us  to  give,  can  readily  obtain  them  from  the 
nurserymen.  Our  object  is  to  aid  the  novice  in  making  a 
selection  of  a few  kinds. 

LARGE-GROWING  TREES. 

DECIDUOU8.* 

1.  Oak  (Quercus  of  species).— Well  known;  indispensable  in  extensive 
grounds— especially  the  White  Oak  ( Q . alba). 

2.  American  Elm  (Ulmus  Americana). 

8.  Maple  ( Acer  of  species).— In  an  article  condemnatory  of  the  ailanthus, 
the  lamented  A.  J.  Downing  says:  “Take  refuge,  friends,  in  the  American 
maples ; clean,  sweet,  cool,  and  umbrageous  are  the  maples.”  For  the  Middle 
and  Western  States  the  Silver  Maple  (A.  dasycarpum)  is  the  best.  For  the 
North  and  East  the  Sugar  or  Rock  Maple  {A.  saccharinum)  is  better.  The 
Red  Flowering  {A.  rubrum)  and  the  Norway  (A.  platanoides)  are  beautiful 
trees,  but  of  slower  growth. 

4.  Black  Walnut  ( Juglans  nigra).— Adapted  to  extensive  grounds. 

5.  Ash  ( Fraxinus  Americana).— Fine  to  group  with  other  trees. 

6.  Horse  Chestnut  (ASsculus  of  species).  The  White  Flowering  {AS.  hip- 
po-castanum)  and  the  Red  Flowering  {AS.  rubicundo)  are  desirable. 

7.  Tulip  Tree  ( Lvriodendron  tulipif  era). —Lofty  and  magnificent 

8.  Cucumber  Tree  ( Magnolia  acuminata).— A.  large,  beautiful  tree,  with 
bluish-wliite  flowers.  All  the  magnolias  are  desirable  where  they  will  succeed. 
The  most  magnificent  of  them  all  (AT.  grandijlora)  will  flourish  only  at  the 
South,  where  it  is  deservedly  a favorite. 

9.  Larch  ( Larix  of  species). — The  European  {L.  Europea)  is  the  best.  The 


* Deciduous  trees  are  those  whose  leaves  fall  in  autumn—  not  evergreens. 


160  The  Garden. 

American  or  Black  Larch  Tamarac  (L.  Americana)  resembles  it,  but  grows 
only  in  very  moist  soils. 

10.  American  Cypress  ( Tamodium  distictium). — Lofty  and  magnificent, 
but  requires  a moist,  rich  soil.  For  the  Middle  and  Southern  States. 

11.  Catalpa  (C.  s ringcefoUa). — Makes  a large,  round  head,  and  large 
leaves  and  showy  flowers. 

12.  American  White  Birch  ( Betula  alba).— A tall,  slender,  and  beautiful 
tree  ; has  a fine  effect  for  grouping. 

13.  Honey  Locust  (Gladitschia  iriacanthos).— Highly  ornamenta. ; fine  for 
lawns  and  for  grouping. 

14.  Paulownia  (P.  imperialis). — Rapid  growing;  large-leaved;  large  blue 
flowers  in  clusters ; blooms  in  June.  Suitable  for  Middle  and  Southern  States. 

15.  Webping  Willow  (Silex  Bubalonicum). 

EVERGREENS. 

1.  Spruce  (Abies  of  species).— The  Hemlock  Spruce  ( A . Canadensis)  is  ono 
of  the  most  beautiful  of  all  evergreen  trees.  Fine  for  a lawn.  The  Norway 
Spruoe  (A.  excelsa)  is  also  a stately  and  magnificent  tree. 

2.  White  Pine  (Finns  strobus). 

8.  Balsam  Fir  ( Picea  balsamea). 

4.  Deodar  Cedar  (C.  Deodar  a).— Graceful  and  beautiful ; rapid  growing ; 
not  perfectly  hardy  at  the  North. 

5.  Cedar  of  Lebanon  (C.  Libani). — Scarcely  hardy  at  the  North,  but  ex- 
ceedingly desirable  where  it  will  succeed. 

6.  American  Arbor  Yit^e  (Thuja  occidmtalis). 

SMALL  TREES  AND  LARGE  SHRUBS. 

DECIDUOUS. 

1.  Weeping  Ash  ( Fraxinus  excelsior  penduld). — Yery  graceful. 

2.  Judas  Tree  (Cercis  Canadensis ). 

8.  Laburnum  (Cytissus  laburnum  et  C.  Alpinus). 

4.  Mountain  Ash  (Pyrus  of  species). — European  and  American.  The 
Weeping  Mountain  Ash  (P.  aucuparia  pendula)  is  a beautiful  drooping  va- 
riety of  the  European. 

5.  Fringe  Tree  (Chionanihus  Virginica).—  Covered  in  spring  with  a pro- 
fusion of  white  flowers. 

6.  Hawthorn  (Crataegus  oxyacantha  of  var.).— -White,  scarlet,  and  rose- 
eolored  flowers ; single  and  double. 

7.  Magnolia  (M.  conspicua  it  M.  Soulangicvna). — The  first  has  white  an<f 
the  second  purple  flowers. 

8.  Burning  Bush  (Euonymous  alropurpureus). 

9.  Large  Flowering  Syringa  (Philadelphus  grandijloms). 

10.  Cornelian  Cherry  (Cornus  mascula). 

evergreens. 

1.  Tree  Box  (Buxus  aborescens). 

2.  Common  Juniper  (t Juniper  us  communis ). 


Ornamental  Trees  and  Shrubs.  1G1 


8.  Irish  Tew  ( Taxus  Ilibernicus). 

4.  Mountain  Laurel  (. Kahnia  latifolid). 

5.  American  Holly  {Ilex  opaca). 

HEDGE  PLANTS. 

DECIDUOUS. 

1.  Osage  Orange  (Madura  aurantiacd). 

2.  Buckthorn  (Rhamnus  Catharticus). 

8.  Hawthorn  ( Cratcegus  oxyacantha). 

4.  Althea  or  Bose  op  Sharon  (Hibiscus  Syriacut). 

5.  Berberry  (Berberis  vulgaris ). 

evergreens. 

1 American  Arbor  (Thuja  occidentaHs) 

8.  American  Holly  ( Ilex  opaca). 

8.  Hemlock  Spruce  (Abies  Canadensis). 

4.  Norway  Spruce  (Abies  excelsa). 

5.  White  Cedar  ( Oivpressus  thyoides). 

6.  Holly-Leaved  Berberry  (Mahonia  aquifolia ). 

7.  Dwarf  Box  (Buxus  suffmUcosa).— For  edging. 

8.  Evergreen  Thorn  (Cratoegus  pyracantha).—For  the  South. 

9.  Cherokee  Bose  (Rosa  laevigata). — Southern. 

10.  White  Macartney  Bose.— The  best  of  all  hedge  plants  for  the  South. 

Live  hedges  must  gradually  take  the  place  of  our  unsightly 
fences  in  the  older  parts  of  the  country,  where  timber  is  already 
Bcarce.  On  the  prairies  of  the  West  there  seems  to  be  no  other 
resource.  See  “ The  Farm”  for  directions  for  their  cultivation. 
Some  of  the  foregoing  hedge  plants  have  not  been  well  proved, 
but  are  all  more  or  less  perfectly  adapted  to  the  purpose.  The 
Osage  Orange  seems  as  yet  to  be  most  generally  approved. 

For  further  information  on  the  culture  of  forest  trees,  for 
shade,  for  shelter,  for  timber,  for  fuel  and  for  profit,  see 
u Fuller’s  Forest  Tree  Culturist.”  And  for  the  selection  and 
management  of  ornamental,  deciduous  and  evergreen  trees, 
see  “ Elliot’s  Lawn  and  Shade  Trees.”  Both  published  bv 
Geo.  E.  Woodwaed,  and  sent  post  paid  for  $1.50  each. 


APPENDIX 


A. 

THE  BEAEING  YEAE. 

This  arises  simply  from  the  tendency  in  the  apple,  when  left  to  itself,  to  beai 
so  large  crops  one  year  as  to  require  the  next  year  to  recover  sufficient  strength 
to  bear  again.  This  becomes  a kind  of  fixed  constitutional  habit  in  a given 
variety,  and  is  continued  by  grafting,  so  that  whole  orchards  bear  one  year,  and 
are  unfruitful  the  next,  with  great  regularity.  On  the  other  hand,  certain  sorts, 
like  the  Belle-fleur  and  Holland  Pippin,  which  bear  but  moderate  crops,  in 
strong  soils  bear  every  year. 

The  habit  itself  may  be  corrected  or  changed,  when  the  tree  or  orchard  is 
young,  by  picking  off  all  the  fruit  that  sets  the  first  year  the  tree  bears  a good 
crop,  thus  forcing  it  to  take  its  bearing  year  the  next  season.— A.  J.  Downing . 

B. 

CAUSE  OF  DIMINISHED  FEETILITY, 

The  first  colonists  of  Virginia  found  a country  the  soil  of  which  was  r/ch  in 
alkalies.  Harvests  of  wheat  and  tobacco  were  obtained  for  a century  from  one 
and  the  same  field,  without  the  aid  of  manure ; but  now  whole  districts  are 
converted  into  unfruitful  pasture  land,  which  without  manure  produces  neither 
wheat  nor  tobacco.  From  every  acre  of  this  land  there  were  removed  in  the 
space  of  one  hundred  years  1,200  lbs.  of  alkalies,  in  leaves,  grain,  and  straw. 
It  became  unfruitful  then  because  it  was  deprived  of  every  particle  of  alkali 
which  had  been  reduced  to  a soluble  state,  and  because  that  which  was  ren- 
dered soluble  again  in  the  course  of  a year  was  not  sufficient  to  supply  the 
demands  of  the  plants.  . . . It  is  the  greatest  possible  mistake  to  suppose 
that  the  temporary  diminution  of  fertility  in  a soil  is  owing  to  the  loss  of  vege- 
table mold.  It  is  the  mere  consequence  of  the  exhaustion  of  the  alkalies. — 
Liebig, 

0. 

EEMOVING  LAEGE  TEEES— “ BALLING.” 

Late  in  the  autumn,  dig  a circular  ditch  at  a distance  of  from  two  to  five  feet* 
according  to  its  size,  from  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  and  from  eighteen  to  thirty 
inches  deep,  smoothly  cutting  off  all  the  lateral  roots  close  to  the  central  mass 
of  earth.  This  ditch  must  be  kept  free  from  snow,  until  the  inclosed  ball  con- 
taining the  roots  of  the  tree  is  thoroughly  frozen.  With  iron  bars  and  lever* 
force  up  this  circular  mass  of  earth,  and  place  two  or  more  strong  skids  under 
it.  By  means  of  a strong  set  of  pulleys,  with  oxen  attached,  if  necessary,  the 


Appendix 


163 


mass  of  earth,  and  the  tree  altogether,  must  be  drawn  oyer  the  skids  up  out  of 
the  hole,  upon  a stone-boat  or  sled,  the  tree  standing  vertically,  just  as  it  grew. 
Thus  loaded  and  secured,  it  may  easily  be  drawn  to  the  spot  selected  for  it.— 
George  Jaques. 

D. 

NEW  VARIETIES  OF  THE  POTATO  FROM  THE  SEED. 

The  plants  from  the  seeds  are  about  as  hardy  as  tomatoes  [and  may  be  sown 
in  the  same  way  either  in  a hot-bed  or  in  the  open  air.  The  former  is  the  pref- 
erable way.]  They  should  be  hoed  often,  and  dug  early,  or  before  the  fall 
rains  and  cold  nights.  Some  years  they  will  grow  large  enough  for  the  table, 
but  are  not  fit  to  eat  until  three  or  four  years  old. 

Each  hill  should  be  dug  by  itself,  and  all  small  and  unhealthy  tubers  thrown 
away,  and  the  good  ones  labeled  and  put  away  carefully  for  another  year’s 
planting.  Any  plants  that  have  been  well  cultivated,  and  only  produce  small 
tubers  the  first  year,  will  never  afterward  ripen  in  season. 

The  second  planting  will  need  care  and  close  attention  through  its  growth. 
Observe  the  time  of  flowering,  and  time  of  the  decay  of  the  vines,  that  when 
digging  them  you  may  have  the  history  of  every  hill,  for  almost  every  hill  is  a 
family  by  itself. 

At  this  time  many  sorts  can  again  be  rejected,  reserving  only  those  that 
promise  good,  or  indicate  the  object  in  view.  I threw  away  a great  many 
varieties  at  every  digging  till  the  fourth  year.  I had  but  three  families,  all 
white  skin  and  flesh,  to  which  I gave  the  name  of  “ Stone  Hill,”  the  quality  of 
which  has  been  well  tested  by  use,  as  they  have  gone  into  almost  every  State 
in  the  Union,  and  have  been  exhibited  at  very  many  fairs,  and  always  attracted 
notice,  and  a premium. — A.  D.  Bulkeley. 

E. 

LUXURIES  OF  A FRUIT  GARDEN. 

A friend  of  ours,  in  whose  reliability  we  have  implicit  confidence,  has  a 
small  plot  of  ground,  of  which  he  tells  us  the  following  facts : 

From  a row  of  currant  bushes,  about  eight  rods  long,  he  and  his  neighbors 
gathered  over  two  bushels  of  currants  this  year.  The  currant  season,  from 
the  first  picking  to  the  last,  was,  from  June  1st  to  August  15th,  two  and  a half 
months. 

From  a row  of  gooseberry  bushes,  two  rods  long,  he  gathered  about  a bushel 
of  gooseberries. 

From  a plot  of  strawberry  vines,  four  rods  long  and  one  rod  wide,  he  gath- 
ered nearly  three  bushels  of  strawberries.  The  strawberry  season  lasted  about 
three  weeks,  ending  about  the  middle  of  July. 

Then  his  raspberries  came  on,  and  lasted  about  three  weeks.  Of  these  he  had 
about  half  a bushel.  They  stood  next  to  the  strawberries  in  point  of  delicacy. 

He  has  a number  of  cherry-trees.  They  yielded  well  this  year.  His  family 
and  friends  used  a bushel  or  so,  and  the  children  of  the  neighborhood  fed 
themselves  upon  them,  without  stint,  for  two  weeks. 


164 


Appendix 


Soon  after  the  raspberries  were  gone,  his  peaches  began  to  ripen.  One  of  the 
trees  ripened  its  fruit  late,  and  it  has  lasted  till  within  a few  days  past ; of  these 
he  has  had  two  or  more  bushels. 

All  along  since  the  first  of  August  his  apples  and  pears  have  been  ripening, 
and  have  furnished  an  abundant  supply  for  his  family,  for  the  cow  and  pig,  and 
some  to  sell  or  give  away  besides.  He  will  have  a large  quantity  of  excellent 
winter  apples.  He  has  just  gathered  from  two  or  tlir*^  grapevines  as  many 
bushels  of  fine  grapes.  Some  of  these  his  wife  mado  into  marmalade,  and 
some  she  has  preserved  in  paper,  for  use  hereafter.  The  best— and  greater 
portion  of  the  whole— were  eaten  as  a dessert,  or  given  to  children  or  friends, 
all  of  whom  enjoyed  them  much. 

These  are  some  of  the  enjoyments  drawn  from  a small  plot  of  ground  during 
the  season  just  closing.  They  were  at  small  cost,  but  they  sweetened  many  a 
meal,  ministered  to  health,  and  added  to  the  comfort  of  many  guests. 

Why  may  not  nearly  every  man  have  as  large  a plot  of  ground,  and  as  many 
comforts  ? Simply  because  he  is  negligent.— Ohio  Farmer. 

¥. 

HYACINTHS  IN  GLASSES. 

Hyacinths  intended  for  glasses  should  be  placed  in  them  during  October  and 
November,  the  glasses  being  previously  filled  with  pure  water,  so  that  the  bot- 
tom of  the  bulb  may  just  touch  the  water ; then  place  them  for  the  first  ten 
days  in  a dark  room,  to  promote  the  shooting  of  the  roots,  after  which  expose 
them  to  the  sun  and  light  as  much  as  possible.  They  will  blow,  however,  with- 
out any  sun,  but  the  color  of  the  flowers  will  be  inferior.  The  water  should  be 
changed  as  it  becomes  impure ; draw  the  roots  entirely  out  of  the  glasses,  rinse 
off  the  fibers  in  clean  water,  and  wash  the  inside  of  the  glass  well.  'Care 
should  be  taken  that  the  water  does  not  freeze,  as  it  would  not  only  burst  the 
glass,  but  cause  the  fibers  to  decay.  Whether  the  water  be  hard  or  soft  is  not 
of  much  consequence— soft  is  preferable— but  must  be  perfectly  clear  to  show 
the  fibers  to  advantage. — Thorium' 8 Catalogue . 


INDEX 


I'AGE 

Ashes 88 

Asparagus 89 

Apple 114 

Apricot 127 

Annuals 149 

Bulbs 19 

Budding 63 

Beet  78 

Bean 81 

“ Pole 82 

“ Lima 83 

Borecole 86 

Broccoli 88 

Blackberry 136 

Biennials 151 

Bulbous  Rooted  Plants 153 

Composts 39 

Crops,  Rotation  of 60 

Cuttings 62 

Carrot 78 

Cabbage 83 

“ Savoy 85 

Cauliflower 86 

Chive 95 

Cress 96 

Celery 97 

Cucumber 100 

Corn  Salad 100 

Cape  Gooseberry 106 

Cherry 128 

Currant 133 

Climbing  Plants 155 

Draining 32,  44 

Exogen 20 

Endogen 20 

Endive  96 

EggPkmt 106 

Flowers 23 

“ Annual 149 

“ Biennial 151 

“ Perennial  151 

“ Tube-ous  Rooted 153 

“ Bulbous  Rooted 153 

Flower  Garden,  Laying  Out 145 

“ “ Cultivation  of . . . . 147 

Fruit 24 

“ Ripening  of 24 

“ Gardening  ..  Ill 

Food  of  Plants 25,  28 

Fencing 43 

Fixtures 48 

Forcing 52 

Frost,  Protection  from 57 

Fig 141 


Garden,  Situation  of  a 41 

“ Size  of  a 41 

“ Shape  of  a 41 

“ Laying  Out 42 

Garlic 94 

Grape 130 

Grape  Yines,  How  to  Train 132 

Germination  13 

Growth,  Conditions  Essential  to. . 27 

Guano 39 

Grafting 65 

Grafting  Wax 68 

Gooseberry 134 

Hot  Beds 49 

Hoeing 57 

Horse  Radish 100 

Hedge  Plants 161 

Implements 46 

u for  Ladies 144 

Insects,  Destruction  of 58 

Indian  Corn 104 

Leaves 21 

Lime 88 

Layers 61 

Leek 94 

Lettuce 95 

Lemon 130 

Lime,  The 130 

Manures 86 

“ Application  of 51 

Marls 38 

Mulching 58 

44  Potatoes 76 

“ Trees 53 

Mustard 96 

Melon 102 

Mulberry 142 

Nectarine 126 

Onion 92 

“ Top 93 

“ Potato 93 

Okra 107 

Olive 129 

Orange 130 

Pits 48 

“ Sunk 48 

“ Walled ...  49 

Propagation 61 

Pruning 68 

Potato 73 

“ Rot 75 

“ Sweet 76 

Parsnep 79 

Pea 80 


166 


Index 


Pea,  Sweet 

“ Everlasting  

Pea-Nut 

Pumpkin 

Peach  

“ Trees,  Pruning 

“ “ Heading-in, 

“ “ Training  . . . 

Pomegranate 

Pepper 

Parsley 

Plum 

Perennials 

Quine® 

Roots 

Radish 

Rhubarb 

Raspberry 

Seed-Leaves 

Stem 

Seeds  * 

“ Sowing 

“ Saving 

Soils 

“ Improvement  of 

“ Depth  of  

“ Preparation  of 

“ Stirring 

Situation 

Subsoils 

Subsoil  Plowing 

Stirring  the  Seal 

Sowing  Seeds. 


PAG* 

Suckers 01 

Slips 63 

Salsify 79 

Spinach  88 

“ New  Zealand 89 

Sea  Kale 90 

Shallot 93 

Shrubs 154-160 

“ Lists  of 154 

“ Flowering 154 

Squash 103 

Sweet  Herbs 109 

Sweet  Potato 76 

Strawberry 136 

Trenching 44 

Trellises 50 

Transplanting 53 

Training 71 

Turnip 77 

Tomato 104 

Trees 157 

“ Transplanting 54 

“ Washes  for 113 

“ Protection  of,  against  Rabbits  113 

“ Lists  of 159 

“ Large  Growing 159 

“ Small 160 

“ Deciduous 159, 160 

“ Evergreen 160 

Vegetable  Marrow 103 

Wheat,  Analysis  of 27 

Watering 57 

Water  Melon 108 


PAGE 

. 150 

. 153 

. 83 

. 102 

. 124 

. 126 

. 126 

, 71 

141 

107 

109 

127 

151 

123 

16 

99 

, 107 

, 134 

16 

19 

24 

53 

60 

30 

32 

34 

44 

51 

41 

82 

, 45 

51 

58 


THE  FAEM: 


A MANUAL 


radical  %uxt\x\iwxv, 


OK,  now  TO  CULTIVATE 


ALL  THE  FIELD  CROPS: 


EMBRACING 

A THOROUGH  EXPOSITION  OF  THE  NATURE  AND  ACTION  OF  SOILS  AND  MANURES 
THH  PRINCIPLES  OF  ROTATION  IN  CROPPING  ; DIRECTIONS  FOR  IRRIGATING, 
DRAINING,  SUBSOILING,  FENCING,  AND  PLANTING  HEDGES’,  DESCRIP- 
TIONS OF  AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS;  INSTRUCTIONS  IN  TUB 
CULTIVATION  OF  THE  VARIOUS  FIELD  CROPS,  ORCHARDS, 

ETC.,  ETC.’, 

WITH  A MOST  VALUABLE 

ou  Jam  punaflmmt. 

By  D.  H.  JACQUES, 

Author  of  “ Tub  Garden,”  “ The  House,”  “ Domestic  Animals,”  “ How 
to  do  Business,”  “How  to  Behave,”  eto. 


To  render  agriculture  more  productive  and  beneficial  to  all,  it  Is  neceeeary  that  It*  principles  should 
be  better  understood,  and  that  we  should  profit  more  from  the  experience  of  each  other. 

JCDQB  BUEL. 


E V I S E D EDITIO  N. 


NEW  YORK: 

THE  AMERICAN  NEWS  COMPANY 

39  AND  41  CHAMBERS  STREET. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1870,  by 
GEO.  E.  WOODWARD, 

In  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  th« 
Southern  District  of  New  York. 


PREFACE 


Believing  that  good  books  on  farming  can  hardly  be  too  greatly 
multiplied,  and  that  a cheap  manual,  embodying  not  only  compre- 
hensive practical  directions  for  the  cultivation  of  the  various  field 
crops,  but  also  a brief  exposition  of  the  fundamental  principles 
which  underlie  all  the  operations  of  the  farm,  is  a special  want 
at  the  present  time,  we  have  essayed,  in  the  work  now  before  the 
reader,  to  supply  this  lack.  How  well  we  have  succeeded,  we  leave 
it  for  the  public  to  judge. 

In  the  details  of  cultivation  we  have  been  intentionally  brief, 
because  we  believed  that  the  mass  of  those  into  whose  hands  this 
book  would  fall,  stand  less  in  need  of  these  than  of  the  information 
condensed  into  the  first  six  or  seven  chapters. 

Having  a correct  notion  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  agri- 
cultural science,  and  with  clear  outlines  of  the  common  practical 
operations  of  farming  before  him,  any  intelligent  man  will  readily, 
by  means  of  observation  and  experience,  make  himself  master  of 
the  minor  details.  Without  the  theoretical  part,  the  rules  of  prac- 
tice laid  down  in  most  agricultural  works  are  liable  constantly  to 
lead  astray. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  little  book  we  have  consulted  a large 
number  of  the  best  agricultural  works — American,  English,  French, 
and  German — to  some  of  which  we  have  been  largely  indebted  for 
facts  and  suggestions.  In  addition  to  the  formal  credit  given  in 
the  body  of  the  work,  we  take  pleasure  in  mentioning  the  following 


vi  Preface. 

works  as  among  those  from  which  we  have  received  more  or  less 
valuable  aid : 

Stephens’  Book  of  the  Farm. 

The  American  Farmer’s  Encyclopedia. 

Allen’s  American  Farm  Book. 

Agricultural  Reports  of  the  Patent  Office. 

Fessenden’s  Complete  Farmer. 

Thaer’s  Principles  of  Agriculture  and  Manures. 

Beatty’s  Southern  Agriculture. 

White’s  Gardening  for  the  South. 

Norton’s  Scientific  Agriculture. 

Dana’s  Muck  Manual. 

Boussingault’s  Economie  Rurale. 

Downing’s  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees. 

Munn’s  Practical  Land  Drainer. 

Tucker’s  Annual  Register. 

Harris’  Rural  Annual. 

The  Country  Gentleman. 

The  American  Agriculturist. 

The  Southern  Cultivator. 

Hoping  that  his  little  book  will  aid  largely,  in  its  humble  way, 
in  the  promotion  of  agricultural  progress,  and  prepare  the  way  for 
many  a larger  and  better  work,  the  author  most  respectfully  dedi- 
cates it 

TO  THE  YOUNG  FARMERS  OF  AMERICA. 


INTRODUCTION 


Agriculture  may  be  said  to  have  had  its  origin  when  it  was 
ordained  that  man  should  earn  his  bread  by  the  sweat  of  his  brow. 
From  that  time  to  the  present,  among  all  nations  and  tribes  of  men, 
more  or  less  attention  has  been  given  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
earth ; although  in  the  earlier  stages  of  social  progress  the  prin- 
cipal reliance  of  mankind  for  subsistence  has  been  first  upon  the 
chase,  and  then  upon  flocks  and  herds.  Man  is  first  a hunter,  then 
a shepherd  or  herdsman,  and  then  a farmer. 

Of  the  existence  of  agriculture  as  one  of  the  prominent  occupa- 
tions of  the  people  among  the  ancient  Israelites,  we  have  many 
notices  in  the  Bible.  We  gather  from  various  scattered  passages 
in  the  books  of  sacred  history  and  prophecy  that  they  had  plows ; 
that  they  turned  the  soil  up  into  ridges;  that  they  plowed  with 
two  oxen ; that  they  sowed  the  seed  broadcast  from  a basket  and 
plowed  it  in ; that  they  used  hoes  or  mattocks  for  extirpating  the 
weeds  ; that  when  the  grain  was  ripe  they  cut  it  with  a sickle  or  a 
scythe ; that  it  was  bound  into  sheaves  and  carried  in  carts  imme- 
diately to  the  threshing  floor  or  to  the  barn ; that  threshing  was 
variously  performed  by  means  of  a threshing-machine  or  instru- 
ment (Isaiah  xviii.  27,  28),  cart  wheels,  the  treading  of  horses  and 
cattle,  and  beating  with  poles ; and  that  the  grain  was  winnowed 
by  being  thrown  up  against  the  wind  by  means  of  a shovel. 

Among  the  ancient  Greeks,  agriculture  received  great  attention, 
and  was  evidently  conducted  with  great  skill  and  success ; in  fact, 
it  seems  to  have  been  much  the  same  thing  as  at  the  present  day, 
our  superiority  consisting  more  in  the  improved  implements  we  use 
than  in  our  better  knowledge  of  the  art  and  science  of  cultivation. 

1* 


Introduction. 


viii 

The  Romans  probably  derived  their  knowledge  of  agriculture 
from  the  Greeks  and  other  older  nations,  adding  to  it  from  their 
own  experience.  They  well  understood  the  nature  of  soils  and  the 
use  of  manures,  and  practiced  irrigation  and  underdraining.  The 
Roman  farmers,  Pliny  tells  us,  were  very  particular  in  drawing 
straight  and  equal -sized  furrows.  They  always  plowed  three  times 
at  least  before  they  sowed.  The  furrows  in  the  first  plowing  were 
usually  nine  inches  deep. 

In  the  early  days  of  Rome,  when  they  praised  a good  man  they 
called  him  an  agriculturist  and  a good  husbandman ; and  he  was 
thought  to  be  very  greatly  honored  who  was  thus  praised. 

The  first  of  modern  countries  to  improve  the  practice  of  agri- 
culture was  Flanders ; and  the  Flemings  or  Belgians  have  con- 
tinued to  this  day  the  model  farmers  of  Europe.  Their  whole 
country  resembles  a series  of  gardens.  Their  farms  are  small,  and 
they  devote  their  efforts  to  three  grand  points — the  accumulation 
of  manures,  the  destruction  of  weeds,  and  the  frequent  and  deep 
pulverization  of  the  soil.  They  were  the  first  among  the  moderns 
to  raise  crops  for  the  purpose  of  plowing  them  in. 

Nowhere  at  the  present  time  is  agriculture  pursued  with  greater 
skill  and  success  than  in  England ; and  there  is  in  that  country  a 
steady  and  continued  progress  both  in  the  science  and  the  art  of 
cultivation. 

American  agriculture  commenced  at  the  point  which  that  of 
England  had  reached  at  the  time  her  colonies  were  planted  on  the 
shores  of  the  Western  Continent.  It  has  not  kept  pace,  we  are 
sorry  to  say,  with  that  of  the  mother  country.  A virgin  soil, 
abounding  in  all  the  elements  of  the  highest  fertility,  and  requir- 
ing at  first  but  slight  tillage  to  produce  large  crops,  the  abundance 
and  cheapness  of  new  lands,  and  the  lack  of  persistent,  steady 
effort,  which  soon  became  an  American  characteristic,  led  at  once 
to  a superficial  and  exhausting  mode  of  cultivation  which  has  re- 
sulted in  reducing  thousands  of  acres  of  once  fertile  soil  to  a bar- 
ren wilderness. 

But  there  has  been  a reaction.  American  husbandry  is  now 


Introduction. 


ix 


rapidly  improving,  and  we  shall  not  long  be  left  behind  by  the 
leading  agricultural  nations  of  Europe.  The  old  or  exhaustive 
system  is  giving  place  to  the  new  or  fertilizing  system,  under  which 
the  productiveness  of  lands  is  constantly  increased  instead  of  being 
diminished.  The  worn-out  lands  of  Virginia  and  the  other  old 
States  have,  in  many  instances,  under  the  new  system,  been  re- 
stored to  more  than  their  original  fertility.  This  will  go  on 
till  the  older  States  will  rival,  if  not  excel,  the  new  in  productive- 
ness. 

The  conditions  requisite  for  the  improvement  of  agriculture,  and 
the  elevation  of  the  agriculturist  to  the  high  social  position  to 
which  his  contributions  to  the  general  welfare  and  the  prosperity  of 
the  State  entitle  him,  are  thus  happily  stated  by  Hon.  L.  Chandler 
Ball,  in  a late  agricultural  address : 

“1.  By  adopting  a higher  standard  of  education,  both  general 
and  professional. 

“ 2.  By  a more  thorough  cultivation  of  the  soil,  by  which  its  fer- 
tility shall  be  increased,  and  permanently  maintained. 

“3.  By  the  more  general  introduction  of  improved  implements 
of  husbandry,  by  which  farm  and  household  labor  may  be  more 
easily  and  more  economically  performed. 

“4.  By  improving  the  breeds  of  domestic  stock,  and  rearing  only 
those  animals  which  are  the  best  of  their  respective  kinds. 

'‘5.  By  growing  only  those  roots,  grains,  grasses,  and  fruits 
which  are  the  most  nutritious  and  the  most  productive. 

“ 6.  By  pursuing  that  particular  branch  of  industry  which  gives 
the  strongest  probabilities  of  success;  having  reference  to  climate, 
soil,  markets,  and  amount  of  foreign  and  domestic  competition. 

“7.  By  making  the  business  of  farming  attractive  to  educated 
men,  and  the  farm-house  and  all  its  surroundings  pleasant  to  re- 
fined taste  and  cultivated  manners.” 

The  extensive  demand  for  books  on  farming,  and  the  wide  circu- 
lation of  agricultural  papers  and  magazines,  show  that  “ a redeem- 
ing spirit”  is  truly  abroad  among  our  farmers.  The  vast  amount 
of  sound  agricultural  teachings  which  is  now  being  almost  univer- 


X 


Introduction. 


sally  diffused,  can  not  fail  to  show  itself  everywhere  in  a rapid  and 
permanent  improvement  of  our  system  of  cultivation. 

But  much  still  remains  to  be  done.  Ignorance  and  prejudice  are 
obstinately  blind  and  deaf.  There  is  much  of  both  to  be  yet  over- 
come. We  send  this  little  book  out  into  the  world  to  aid  as  it  may 
in  the  work. 


CONTENTS 


I.— SOILS. 

Importance  of  the  Subject — The  Organic  and  the  Inorganic  Parts  of  Soils — 
Origin  of  Each— Classification  of  Soils— Heavy  Soils— Light  Soils— Crops 
adapted  to  Each  - Sandy  Soils— Clayey  Soils— Limy  Soils— Loamy  Soils — 
Marly  Soils — Alluvial  Soils — Vegetable  Molds -Subsoils — Analysis  of  Soils 
— Professor  Johnson’s  Tabular  View— The  Causes  of  Fertility  and  of  Barren- 
ness-How to  Ascertain  the  Per-centage  of  Sand  in  any  Soil— A Test  for 
Lime — Physical  Properties  of  Soils— Texture— The  Value  of  the  impalpable 
Powder  in  Soils— A Mechanical  Analysis — Consistency  of  Soils— Depth  of 
Soil — Colors  of  Soils — Humidity— Influence  of  Subsoils— Position  and  Form 
Surface — Improvement  of  Soils— Management  of  Clayey  Soils— Draining 
—The  Addition  of  Sand,  Lime,  Plaster  of  Paris,  etc. — Fall  Plowing— Paring 
and  Burning — Management  of  Sandy  Soils— Vegetable  or  Peaty  Soils — Man- 
agement of  Subsoils -Subsoil  Plowing— Benefits  of  Subsoiling Page  13 

II.— MANURES. 

Necessity  of  Manures — Why  the  Soil  of  a Forest  does  not  become  Exhausted — 
Exhaustion  of  Cultivated  Soils— Decrease  of  Productiveness  of  the  Soils  of 
New  York — Instructive  Facts — Land,  like  Animals  and  Plants,  must  be 
Fed— Food  of  Plants— Organic  and  Inorganic  Substances  found  in  Plants — 
Both  made  up  from  their  Food— Where  Plants  obtain  their  Food — What  the 
Different  Crops  Take  from  the  Soil— A Tabular  View — Classification  of  Man- 
ures—Vegetable  Manures— Green  Crops  as  Manures— Advantages  of  Green 
Manures— Straw,  Leaves,  etc.— Sea-Weed — Composition  of  Sea-Weed— Cotton 
Seed — Turf— Swamp  Muck — Great  Value  of  Muck — Muck  and  Ashes— How  to 
Compost  Muck— Animal  Manures— Stable  Manures— Value  of  Urine— How  to 
Preserve  and  Apply  it— Waste  of  Manures  by  Fermentation — How  to  avoid  it 
— Hog  Manure— The  Manure  of  Fowls — How  to  Treat  it — Guano — Composition 
of  Guano — Fish  Manures — Night  Soil— How  to  Preserve  and  Compost  Night 
Soil— Flesh,  Blood,  etc.,  as  Manures— Bones— Process  of  Dissolving  Bones — 
Mineral  Manures — Lime — Marls— Green  Sand— Gypsum— Major  Dickinson's 
Method  of  Applying  Mineral  Manures  to  Seeds — Common  Salt— Other  Salts 
—Ashes— Management  of  Manures — Fermentation— Overhauling  Manures — 
Drawing  Manure  in  Winter — A Caution  in  reference  to  Quicklime— Bury- 
ing Manure — Importance  of  Texture  —Composts — Irrigation 25 


xn  Contents. 

m.— ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

Theory  of  Rotations — The  Three  Grand  Classes  of  Crops— The  Grain  Crops  - 
The  Root  Crops— The  Grass  Crops— Systems  of  Rotation— Benefits  of  Rota- 
tion in  Cropping— Astonishing  Neglect  of  a Great  Source  of  Profit.. Page  43 

IV.— DRAINING. 

Bad  Effects  of  Excess  of  Moisture  - How  Draining  remedies  them— Ten  Reasons 
for  Underdraining— Conditions  Requiring  Drainage — Practical  Directions— 
Examination  of  the  Field — Draining  Springy  Ground — Direction  of  Drains — 
Depth  and  Distance  Apart — Digging — Implements— A Ditcher’s  Level — Ma- 
terials and  Construction— Brush-Wood  Drains— Stone  Drains — Different 
kinds  of  Stone  Drains— Tile  Drains — Rationale  of  their  Action — Will  Drain- 
ing Pay  ?— A Farmer’s  Reply— Some  Facts— Estimates—  Economy  of  Tiles  51 

V.— FENCES. 

Requisites  of  a Good  Fence— Various  kinds  of  Fence — Stone  Fence— The  Zig- 
zag Fence— Posts  and  Rails— The  best  Wood  for  Posts— Board  Fence- The 
Sunken  Fence— The  Wire  Fence  Illustrated— Cost  of  Wire  Fence — Wire 
Netting— Hurdle  Fence— Hedges— Causes  of  Failure  in  Cultivating  Hedges 
— The  best  Hedge  Plants — Directions  for  Planting  and  Trimming — Hedges 
for  the  South— How  to  Form  a Hedge  of  Cherokee  or  Macartney  Rose— A 
Hint  or  Two— Are  Fences  Necessary  ?— No  Fences  in  France,  Belgium,  etc. 
—The  Ohio  Farmer’s  Opinion G1 

VI.— AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS  AND  THEIR  USE. 

The  Plow— Ancient  Plows— Modern  Improvements— The  Eagle  Plow — The 
— Michigan  Plow— The  Double  Mold-Board  Plow— The  Subsoil  Plow— The 
Harrow -The  Cultivator — The  Horse  Hoe— The  Field  Roller— Seed  Sowers 
—The  Horse  Rake— Mowers,  Reapers,  etc.— Conclusion 73 

VIL-FARM  MANAGEMENT. 

Introductory—  Capital  — Livestock — Implements— Seeds— Labor — Recapitula- 
tion of  Estimates  - Size  of  Farm—  Laying  Out  Farms  - Fences— Gates— Build- 
ings— Choice  of  Implements— Choice  of  Animals — Soils  and  their  Manage- 
ment—Manures— Rotation  of  Crops— Operations  in  Order  of  Time — Conclu- 
sion   82 


VIII.— FARM  CROPS. 

Indian  Corn — Wheat— "Rye — The  Oat— Barley— Rice— Buckwheat— Millet — 
How  to  Shock  Grain— Potato— Sweet  Potato — Turnip — Kohl  Rabi— Carrot— 
Parsnep — Beet — Chinese  Yam — The  Grasses — Timothy — Meadow  Grass- 
Red  Top — The  Fescue  Grasses— Orchard  Grass — Egyptian  Grass — German 
Millet  or  Hungarian  Grass — The  Clovers — Other  Grasses — Cotton — Sugar- 
Cane  — Chinese  Sugar-Cane  — Imphee  — Broom  Corn  — Flax  — Hemp  — 


Hops 100 

IX.— THE  ORCHARD. 

Laying  Out  Orchards— Squares— Quincunx— Soil  and  Situation— Planting- 
Cultivation— Profits  of  Apple  Culture 14C 


THE  FARM 


SOILS. 


For  the  reaaon  that  a plant  would  die  in  a vacuum,  for  the  same  reasob  It  would  die  in  a bo| 
destitute  of  the  bases  necessary  for  its  organic  constitution /or  to  live  iB  to  com- 

bine, and  without  elements  no  combination  would  be  possible. — Raspail , 


I.— CLASSIFICATION  OF  SOILS. 


HEN  selecting  a farm,  or  when  entering 
1 upon  the  cultivation  of  one  already  in 
possession,  the  farmer  should,  first  of 
V all,  turn  his  attention  to  an  investiga- 

tion  of  the  various  soils  of  which  its  surface  is 
^ composed.  These  form  the  basis  of  all  his  oper- 
' ations ; and  his  success  will  depend  in  no  small 
degree  upon  the  skill  with  which  he  avails  him- 
self of  the  capabilities  and  adaptations  of  each.  He  should  be 
familiar  with  their  several  characteristics,  understand  the  va- 
rious methods  of  improving  them,  and  know  to  what  crops 
each  is  best  adapted.  To  aid  him  in  this  investigation  is  the 
object  of  this  chapter. 

All  soils  adapted  to  agricultural  purposes  are  composed  of  two 
classes  of  substances- -organic  and  inorganic.  The  inorganic 


14 


The  Farm. 


parts  are  derived  from  the  decay  of  animal  and  vegetable  mat- 
ter. There  must  have  been  a time,  in  the  geological  history  of 
the  earth,  when  the  soil  was  destitute  of  these  elements.  A low 
grade  of  animal  and  vegetable  life  was  possible  without  them, 
living  things  found  nourishment  in  the  crumbled  rocks,  which 
formed  the  primitive  soil.  Enriched  by  their  decay,  it  became 
capable  of  sustaining  a higher  order  of  existence.  The  result 
gradually  attained,  we  see  in  the  present  condition  of  the  earth’s 
surface. 

The  organic  part  of  the  soil  is  generally  called  vegetable 
mold,  hut  scientific  writers  designate  it  as  humus.  To  be  fertile, 
a soil  must  contain  a considerable  portion  of  this  organic  mat- 
ter ; but  we  know  of  no  rule  by  which  to  determine  precisely 
what  quantity  is  essential.  Probably  from  five  to  ten  per  cent, 
must  be  present  in  all  permanently  rich,  strong  soils. 

Besides  ministering  directly  to  the  growth  of  plants,  by  fur- 
nishing them  with  a portion  of  their  necessary  food,  this  vege- 
table mold  or  humus  promotes  fertility  by  improving  the  tex- 
ture of  the  soil,  making  sandy  land  more  tenacious  and  clayey 
land  more  friable ; and  by  giving  it  a darker  color,  and  thus 
increasing  its  power  of  absorbing  heat.  More  than  fifty  per 
cent,  of  humus , however,  in  a moist  soil  has  an  injurious  effect, 
rendering  it  what  is  called  sour. 

We  have  already  hinted  at  the  origin  of  the  inorganic  por- 
tions of  the  soil,  in  speaking  of  the  crumbled  rocks  which  nour- 
ished the  first  living  things.  The  process  of  decomposition  or 
crumbling  down  is  still  going  on  under  our  eyes.  Some  rocks 
crumble  very  slowly,  others  more  rapidly ; but  all  wear  away 
more  or  less.  Each  rock  gives  its  own  peculiar  character  to  the 
soil  which  it  forms. 

Of  the  various  soils  several  distinct  classifications  may  be 
made.  It  will  he  well  for  us,  at  the  outset,  to  consider  them 
all  as  embraced  in  two  grand  classes — heavy  or  light.  The  dis- 
tinction indicated  by  these  terms  is  familiar  to  every  farmer. 
He  knows,  too,  that  it  is  a predominance  of  clay  which  consti- 
tutes a soil  heavy,  and  that  an  excess  of  sand  or  gravel  makes  a 


Soils.  15 

i»oi]  what  is  called  light.  We  will  look  at  these  two  classes  of 
soils  a little  more  in  detail. 

1.  Heavy  Soils. — Heavy  soils,  also  often  denominated  cold  and 
wet,  are  distinguished  for  their  affinity  for  water,  their  tenacity, 
their  softness  when  wet,  and  their  hardness  when  dry.  They 
are  comparatively  difficult  to  cultivate,  and  require  more  skill  and 
caution  In  iheir  management  than  light  soils ; but  they  are  gen- 
erally fertile,  and  not  easily  exhausted.  They  not  only  hold 
securely  the  various  solid  manures  applied  to  them,  till  they  are 
required  for  the  support  of  the  growing  crops,  but  greedily  absorb 
the  fertilizing  gases  brought  within  their  reach  by  the  air  and 
the  rains.  They  are  admirably  adapted  to  wheat,  oats,  Indian 
corn,  and  the  various  grasses ; hence  they  are  sometimes  styled 
grass  lands.  They  of  course  exist  in  great  diversity,  and  vary 
much  in  value,  but  are  generally  susceptible  of  being  made 
highly  productive. 

2.  Light  Soils . — Light  soils  are  easily  cultivated,  friable,  dry, 
and  warm  ; but  their  porousness  facilitates  the  escape  of  both 
the  water  and  the  manure  applied  to  them,  and  renders  them 
liable  to  drouth  and  exhaustion.  They  are  particularly  adapted 
to  rye,  barley,  buckwheat,  and  the  tap- rooted  plants.  The 
English  farmers  sometimes  distinguish  them  as  turnip  soils. 

Although  soils  contain  small  quantities  of  a large  number  of 
substances,  they  are  chiefly  made  up  of  what  are  sometimes 
called  the  three  primitive  earths — silex  (including  sand  and 
gravel),  clay,  and  lime.  As  either  of  these  predominates,  it  gives 
its  peculiar  character  to  the  soil,  whence  we  have  the  arrange- 
ment into  three  grand  classes — silicious,  argillaceous,  and  cal- 
careous, or,  in  other  words,  sandy,  clayey,  and  limy  soils. 

1.  Sandy  Soils . — A soil  containing  not  less  than  seventy  per 
cent,  of  sand  may  be  considered  sandy,  in  the  sense  in  which 
the  term  is  here  used. 

2.  Clayey  Soils. — Clay  with  a mixture  of  not  more  than 
twenty  per  cent,  of  sand  forms  a clayey  soil. 

3.  Limy  Soils. — Limy  or  calcareous  soils  are  those  in  which 
lime,  exceeding  twenty  per  cent.,  becomes  the  distinguishing 


16 


The  Farm, 


characteristic.  Calcareous  soils  may  he  either  calcareous  clays, 
calcareous  sands,  or  calcareous  loams,  according  to  the  propor- 
tions of  clay  or  sand  that  may  he  present  in  them. 

4.  Loamy  Soils.-  —Loamy  soils  are  intermediate  between  those 
denominated  sandy  and  those  with  predominant  clayey  charac- 
teristics. There  are  sandy  loams,  clayey  loams,  calcareous 
loams,  and  vegetable  loams. 

5.  Marly  Soils. — Soils  containing  lime,  but  in  which  the  pro- 
portion does  not  exceed  20  per  cent.,  are  sometimes  called  marly. 

6.  Alluvial  Soils. — Soils  made  up  of  the  washings  of  streams 
are  called  alluvial.  They  contain  portions  of  every  kind  of  soil 
existing  in  the  surrounding  country,  and  are  generally  loamy 
and  very  fertile. 

7.  Vegetable  Melds. — When  decayed  vegetable  and  animal 
matter  or  humus  exists  in  so  great  a proportion  as  to  give  the 
predominant  character  to  a soil,  it  sometimes  receives  the  name 
of  vegetable  mold. 

8.  Subsoils. — The  stratum  or  bed  on  which  a soil  immedi- 
ately rests  is  called  the  subsoil.  Subsoils,  like  soils,  may  be 
either  silicious,  argillaceous,  or  calcareous. 

II.— ANALYSIS  OF  SOILS. 

Chemical  analysis  shows  that  the  organic  parts  of  a soil  are 
composed  of  carbon , oxygen , nitrogen , and  hydrogen.  The  in- 
organic parts  of  a fertile  soil,  in  addition  to  the  silex,  clay,  and 
lime,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken,  contain  smaller  quanti- 
ties of  magnesia,  potash,  soda,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  chlorine, 
oxyd  of  iron,  and  oxyd  of  manganese.  All  these  are  essential 
to  independent  fertility. 

It  may  be  remarked  here,  that  while  chemical  science  is  a 
highly  useful  ally  of  agriculture,  its  decisions  must,  for  the 
present,  be  held  subject  to  reversal  by  practical  experiments. 
This  lack  of  perfect  and  universal  reliability  comes  from  the 
imperfection  of  the  most  careful  apalyses,  and  from  the  influ- 
ence of  conditions  of  which  chemistry  can  not  take  cognizance ; 
and  not  from  the  unsoundness  of  chemical  theories. 


Soils.  ’ 


17 


Professor  J.  F.  W.  Johnson  has  given  the  following  tabular 
riew  of  the  composition  of  soils  of  different  degrees  of  fertility : 


IN  ONE  HUNDRED  POUNDS. 

Ferti’e 
without 
Man  ure. 

Fertile 

with 

Manure. 

Very 

Barren. 

Organic  matter 

9.7 

5.0 

4.0 

Silica 

64.  S 

83.3 

77.8 

Alumina  (the  base  of  clay) 

5.7 

5.1 

9.1 

Lime 

5.9 

1.8 

.4 

Magnesia 

.9 

.8 

.1 

Oxyd  of  iron 

6.1 

3.1 

8.i  ; 

Oxyd  of  manganese 

.1 

.3 

.i 

Potash 

.2 

Soda  

.4 

Chlorine 

.2 

Sulphuric  acid. 

.2 

.1 

Phosphoric  acid 

.4 

.2 

Carbonic  acid 

4.0 

.4 

Loss  during  the  analysis 

1.4 

.4 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

The  soil  of  which  the  composition  is  given  in  the  first  column 
contained  all  the  elements  required  for  the  growth  of  plants, 
and  so  long  as  these  remain  unexhausted  will  produce  good  crops 
without  manure.*  Some  of  the  alluvial  soils  of  the  West  are  of 
this  character.  They  will  all  be  found  to  contain  every  one  of 
these  constituents.  The  proportions  may  vary  in  soils  of  equal 
fertility.  This  is  immaterial,  so  long  as  there  shall  he  a suf- 
ficient quantity  of  each  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  crop.  The 
soil  the  analysis  of  which  is  recorded  in  the  second  column  lacked 
potash,  soda,  and  chlorine.  These  are  essential,  and  therefore 
the  soil,  in  its  natural  condition,  was  barren  ; but  as  these  con- 
stituents are  all  supplied  in  considerable  quantity  by  ordinary 
manuring,  fertility  was  thus  easily  attained.  In  the  third  col- 
umn half  the  inorganic  substances  present  in  the  first  are  en- 
tirely lacking,  and  two  others — lime  and  magnesia — are  greatly 
reduced  in  their  proportion.  Ho  ordinary  manuring  would  sup- 
ply all  these  deficiencies,  and  therefore  the  soil  was,  in  a practi- 
cal point  of  view,  hopelessly  barren. 

Does  not  this  illustration  make  the  cause  of  fertility  on  the 


* See  “ The  Garden,”  Chapter  I. 


18 


The  Farm. 


one  hand  anc]  of  barrenness  on  the  other  perfectly  obvious  l 
Here  it  is  in  the  compass  of  a nut-shell.  A soil  is  fertile  (as  a 
general  rule)  when  it  contains  in  sufficient  quantity  all  the  sub- 
stances which  plants  require,  and  barren  when  some  of  these 
substances  are  either  entirely  wanting  or  deficient  in  quantity. 
The  exceptions  to  the  first  part  of  this  rule  are  an  unfavorable 
physical  condition  and  the  presence  of  certain  substances  in 
hurtful  excess. 

The  time  is  coming  when  every  farmer,  thoroughly  educated 
at  an  agricultural  college,  will  possess  both  the  knowledge  and 
the  apparatus  necessary  for  making  any  required  analysis . of 
soils,  but  at  present  we  must,  in  general,  be  content  with  the 
knowledge  of  their  composition  which  we  are  able  to  obtain  by 
a few  simple  processes. 

To  ascertain  the  per-centage  of  sand  which  a soil  may  contain, 
dry  a quantity  thoroughly ; weigh  it ; boil  it  in  water ; stir  it  in 
a convenient  vessel,  and  when  the  sand  has  settled  pour  off  the 
liquid,  which  will  hold  the  fine  clay,  etc.,  in  suspension ; after 
doing  this  a few  times  nothing  will  remain  in  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel  but  nearly  pure  sand,  which  may  be  dried  and  weighed, 
and  the  quantity  will  show  whether  the  soil  be  sandy,  loamy,  or 
clayey. 

Any  considerable  quantity  of  lime  in  a soil  is  readily  detected 
by  pouring  upon  it  a little  muriatic  acid,  which  may  be  obtained 
at  any  apothecary  shop.  So  soon  as  this  acid  comes  in  contact 
with  lime,  if  there  be  any,  a brisk  effervescence  will  take  place, 
owing  to  the  bubbling  up  and  escape  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  This 
simple  test  would  save  many  a farmer  from  the  expensive  mis- 
take of  applying  lime  to  land  which  already  contains  a sufficient 
quantity  of  that  important  element  of  fertility. 

III.— PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  SOILS. 

In  judging  of  the  value  of  a soil,  the  nature  and  proportions 
of  the  elements  of  which  it  is  composed  are  not  the  only  circum- 
stances to  be  considered.  Its  physical  properties  must  also  be 
taken  into  account. 


Soils. 


19 


1.  Texture  of  Soils. — Considered  in  reference  to  texture,  a 
soil  may  be  described  as  essentially  a mixture  of  an  impalpable 
powder  with  a greater  or  smaller  quantity  of  visible  particles 
of  all  sizes  and  shapes.  Now,  although  the  visible  particles  are 
absolutely  essential,  their  effects  are,  as  it  were,  indirect ; the 
impalpable  powder  alone  exerting  a direct  influence  upon 
vegetation,  by  entering  into  solution  with  the  water  and  acids 
with  which  it  comes  in  contact ; for  plants  are  incapable  of 
taking  in  solid  matter  however  minutely  divided  ; and  it  is  in  a 
liquid  or  gaseous  form  only  that  their  food  can  be  received.4 
From  this  it  will  be  readily  understood  how  a soil  may  possess 
all  the  elements  of  fertility  and  yet  be  barren,  as  stated  in  a pre- 
vious section,  on  account  of  some  of  these  elements  being  locked 
up  in  it,  as  it  were,  in  an  insoluble  condition.  The  stones  and 
smaller  visible  portions  of  the  soil  are  gradually  but  constantly 
crumbling  down  under  the  action  of  air,  moisture,  and  other 
chemical  agents,  thus  adding,  from  year  to  year,  new  impalpable 
matter  to  the  soil.  The  greater  the  proportion  of  this  impal- 
pable matter,  all  other  things  being  equal,  the  greater  will  be 
the  fertility  of  the  soil.  This  proportion  may  be  ascertained 
with  considerable  accuracy  by  the  following  simple  experiment : 
“Take  a glass  tube  about  two  feet  long,  closed  at  one  end; 
fill  it  about  half  full  of  water,  and  put  into  it  a sufficient  quantity 
of  the  soil  to  be  examined  to  fill  two  or  three  inches  of  the  tube 
at  the  bottom ; then  put  in  a cork,  and  having  shaken  the  tube 
well,  to  mix  its  contents  thoroughly,  set  it  in  an  upright  position 
for  the  soil  to  settle.  Now,  as  the  largest  particles  are  of  course 
heaviest,  they  fall  first,  and  form  the  undermost  layer,  and  so  on 
in  regular  gradation,  the  impalpable  powder  forming  the  upper 
stratum.  By  examining  the  various  layers  and  noting  their  pro- 
portions you  may  make  a very  good  mechanical  analysis  of  soils.” 
Soils  must  also  be  examined  in  reference  to  their  consistency 
or  tenacity,  which  is  nothing  more  than  the  strength  with  which 
their  molecules  or  particles  are  bound  to  each  other  by  what  is 


♦ See  “ The  Garden,”  Chapter  I. 


20 


The  Farm. 


called,  in  the  language  of  natural  philosophy,  the  attraction  ol 
cohesion.  Clayey  soils  have  the  greatest  degree  of  consistency, 
and  sandy  soils  the  least.  Both  extremes  are  unfavorable,  a 
medium  in  this  respect  agreeing  best  with  vegetation. 

2.  Depth  of  Soil. — Another  very  important  point  is  depth  of 
soil.  A deep  soil  has  not  only  the  advantage  of  giving  the  roots 
of  plants  a wider  range  and  a greater  mass  of  food,  but  it  retains 
moisture  better  in  seasons  of  drouth,  and  is  not  so  readily  sat- 
urated in  rainy  weather.  For  the  tap-rooted  plants,  such  as 
beets,  carrots,  parsneps,  etc.,  depth  of  soil  is  particularly  im- 
portant. 

3.  Golovs  of  Soils. — Soils  are  of  various  colors — black,  white, 
gray,  yellow,  red,  etc.,  and  the  effects  and  indications  of  these 
hues  are  not  to  be  disregarded  in  estimating  the  value  of  land 
for  agricultural  purposes.  The  brown  and  red  soils  are  gener- 
ally best.  They  are  termed  warm,  and  are  mostly  loamy  and 
fertile.  Yellow  and  gray  indicate  clayey  soils,  which  are  cold  in 
their  nature.  Black  generally  indicates  peat  or  deep  vegetable 
mold.  Dark-colored  earths  absorb  heat  more  rapidly  than 
others,  but  they  also  allow  it  to  escape  with  equal  readiness. 

4.  Humidity  of  Soils. — Too  great  moisture  is  not  less  injurious 
to  a soil  than  extreme  dryness.  The  proper  medium  should 
be  sought,  and  where  land  is  too  wet,  thorough  underdrain- 
ing should  be  practiced.  But  more  on  this  point  in  another 
chapter. 

5.  Influence  of  Subsoils. — A subsoil  of  clay  beneath  a clayey 
soil  is  unfavorable ; but  beneath  a sandy  soil  it  is  beneficial, 
especially  if  deep  plowing  and  subsoiling  be  resorted  to,  for  the 
purpose  of  improving  the  latter.  On  the  same  principle  a sandy 
or  gravelly  subsoil  is  desirable  under  clayey  soils,  as  it  permits 
the  infiltration  of  any  superabundant  moisture,  and  may  ameli- 
orate the  soil  by  mixing  with  it.  A calcareous  or  limy  sub- 
soil is  beneficial  to  both  clayey  and  sandy  soils. 

6.  Position  and  Form  of  Surface. — The  position  in  which  a 
piece  of  land  lies  and  the  form  of  its  surface  increases  or  detracts 
from  its  value  according  to  its  composition.  Sandy  soils  are 


Soils. 


21 


most  fertile  when  flat  and  situated  lower  than  the  surrounding 
country.  On  the  declivities  of  hills,  such  soil  is  of  less  value, 
as  it  is  liable  to  become  parched  by  drouths  and  washed  away 
by  rains.  Clayey  soils,  on  the  contrary,  especially  where  the 
subsoil  is  impermeable,  are  favorably  situated  when  on  a hill- 
side. Southern  and  eastern  exposures  are  favorable  to  early 
vegetation,  and  in  a cold  climate  or  with  a clayey  soil  are  very 
desirable  for  many  crops. 

IY.— IMPROVEMENT  OF  SOILS 

Even  the  most  valuable  farms  generally  contain  many  acres 
which  require  considerable  amelioration,  aside  from  ordinary 
culture  and  manuring,  to  bring  them  into  the  highest  state  of 
fertility  of  which  they  are  capable ; and  the  farmer  should  be 
well  acquainted  with  the  various  means. and  methods  to  be 
made  use  of  in  improving  each  kind  of  soil. 

The  means  of  ameliorating  soils  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  mechanical  and  chemical.  The  former  includes  drain- 
ing, trenching,  subsoil  plowing,  paring,  the  addition  of  various 
substances  to  improve  texture,  etc. ; the  latter  embraces  the 
various  kinds  of  manures.  Practically,  however,  the  two 
classes  run  into  each  other,  the  mechanical  processes  leading 
to  chemical  changes,  and  the  addition  of  manures  to  mechanical 
improvement. 

To  draining  and  manures,  separate  chapters  will  be  devoted. 
TTe  will  speak  here  briefly  of  a few  other  means  of  improve- 
ment which  should  not  be  neglected. 

1.  Improving  Clayey  Soils. — One  of  the  principal  defects  of 
clayey  soils,  especially  wdiere  they  rest  upon  a subsoil  of  the 
same  nature,  is  the  excess  of  water  which  is  held  in  them.  The 
only  effectual  way,  in  a majority  of  cases,  to  get  rid  of  this  is 
by  thorough  underdraining.  This  draws  off  by  imperceptible 
degrees  all  the  excess  of  water  and  opens  the  soil  to  the  free 
admission  of  the  air,  which  in  its  passage  through  it  imparts 
warmth  and  such  fertilizing  gases  as  it  may  contain.  Open 
drains  or  ditches,  though  less  effectual,  are  useful.  In  some 


22 


The  Farm. 


cases  “ water  furrows,”  terminating  in  some  ravine  or  ditch, 
serve  a very  good  purpose. 

To  break  the  too  great  tenacity  of  clayey  soils,  sand  seems  to 
be  the  ingredient  indicated ; but  so  large  a quantity  is  required 
to  produce  the  desired  effect,  that  its  application  on  a large 
scale  is  generally  considered  impracticable.  Lime  is  exceed- 
ingly useful  as  an  ameliorator  of  clayey  soils,  inducing  chemical 
combinations  the  mechanical  effect  of  which  is  to  break  up  the 
too  great  tenacity  of  the  clay,  while  it  adds,  at  the  same  time, 
an  element  of  fertility  which  may  perhaps  be  wanting.  Gyp- 
sum or  plaster  of  Paris  has  the  same  effect  in  a still  more  power- 
ful degree.  Ashes,  coarse  vegetable  manures,  straw,  leaves, 
chips,  etc.,  are  also  very  useful,  adding  new  materials  to  the  soil 
and  tending  to  separate  its  particles  and  destroy  their  strong  co- 
hesion. In  cold  climates,  plowing  clayey  lands  in  the  fall,  a»d 
thus  exposing  them  to  the  action  of  the  frosts  and  snows,  has  a 
beneficial  effect.  At  the  South,  where  there  is  little  frost,  and 
frequent  and  heavy  rains  occur  during  the  winter,  the  effect  of 
fall  plowing  is  very  injurious.  Clayey  lands  must  never  be 
plowed  when  wet. 

Where  a clayey  soil  rests  upon  a sandy  subsoil  its  improve- 
ment is  easier,  as  deep  plowing,  by  which  a portion  of  the  sub- 
soil is  turned  up  and  mixed  with  the  soil,  soon  modifies  it  very 
sensibly. 

In  Europe,  paring  off  the  surface  containing  vegetable  matter, 
drying,  and  burning  it,  and  spreading  the  charred  mass  to  which 
it  is  thus  reduced  upon  the  surface,  to  become  again  mixed 
with  it,  is  frequently  resorted  to  for  the  improvement  of  clayey 
soils ; but  this  process  is  too  expensive  to  be  generally  applic- 
able in  this  country,  where  labor  is  so  dear  and  land  so  cheap. 

2.  Improving  Sandy  Soils . — Sandy  soils  require  a treatment 
in  most  respects  the  reverse  of  that  applied  to  clayey  soils.  Clay 
is  the  great  ameliorator,  and  as  the  quantity  required  to  produce 
a decided  beneficial  effect  is  not  great,  it  may  generally,  when  it 
can  be  obtained  in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  be  applied 
with  profit.  It  should  be  thinly  spread  in  the  fall  upon  sward 


Soils. 


23 


land  previously  plowed,  so  that  the  frosts  of  winter  may  act  upon 
it  and  separate  its  particles.  The  land  should  he  thoroughly 
harrowed  in  the  spring  and  subsequently  plowed,  if  necessary. 

Lime  and  gypsum,  which  render  clayey  soils  more  friable,  in- 
crease the  adhesiveness  of  sandy  soils,  and  when  cheaply  ob- 
tained furnish  a profitable  dressing.  Ashes  may  also  he  ap 
plied  with  great  benefit,  as  may  vegetable  manures  and  vege- 
table mold.  Sandy  soils  are  plowed  to  the  greatest  advantage 
when  wet,  and  are  improved  by  the  frequent  use  of  a heavy 
roller.  Pasturing  sheep  upon  them  is  very  beneficial. 

Gravelly  soils  (except  calcareous  gravels)  are  more  difficult 
of  improvement  than  sandy  soils,  and  are  most  profitably  ap- 
propriated to  pasturage.  Sheep  will  keep  them  in  the  most 
useful  condition  of  which  they  are  capable. 

3.  Improvement  of  Vegetable  Soils . — Soils  composed  mainly 
of  humus  or  vegetable  mold,  such  as  are  found  on  low,  swampy 
levels,  and  sometimes  called  peaty  soils,  are  generally,  in  their 
natural  state,  totally  unfit  for  any  profitable  vegetation.  When 
it  is  desirable  to  cultivate  such  a soil,  the  first  process  is  to  drain 
from  it  all  the  excess  of  water  which  it  may  contain.  Then  the 
hommocks,  if  any,  must  he  cut  off,  dried,  and  burned,  and  the 
ashes  spread  over  the  surface ; after  which  sand,  fine  gravel, 
ashes,  air-slacked  lime,  and  barn-yard  manure  should  be  liber- 
ally added.  These  soils,  thus  ameliorated,  make  valuable  grass 
lands,  but  require  subsequent  dressings  of  sand,  lime,  ashes, 
etc.,  as  their  fertility  decreases. 

4.  Management  of  Subsoils, — We  have  already  spoken  of  the 
benefits  resulting  from  mixing  the  soil  and  subsoil  by  deep  plow- 
ing, in  cases  where  they  are  of  a different  nature.  To  break  up 
the  subsoil  and  prepare  it  for  mixing,  and  also  to  deepen  soils 
and  give  the  roots  of  plants  a greater  scope,  a variety  of  sub- 
soil plows  have  been  invented.  In  subsoil  plowing  a common 
plow  goes  first  and  is  followed  in  the  same  furrow  by  the  sub- 
soil plow,  which  thoroughly  breaks  up  the  subsoil  to  the  depth 
of  from  twelve  to  sixteen  inches,  without  displacing  it.  At 
subsequent  plo wings  portions  of  this  subsoil  are  turned  up  by 


24 


The  Farm. 


allowing  the  common  plow  to  run  more  deeply  than  before ; 
but  care  should  be  taken  not  to  bring  it  up  too  rapidly  or  in  toe 
large  quantities. 

Besides  allowing  the  roots  of  plants  to  penetrate  more  deep- 
ly in  search  of  nutriment  and  moisture,  subsoil  plowing,  by 
opening  the  stratum  broken  up  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere, 
gradually  prepares  it  to  become  an  integral  part  of  the  soil, 
increases  its  warmth  by  making  it  a better  conductor  of  heat, 
and  renders  it  far  less  liable  to  suffer  from  drouth.  This  last 
point  is  particularly  important,  as  subsoiled  lands  frequently 
produce  excellent  crops  in  seasons  in  which  those  subjected  to 
common  plowing  alone  fail  to  return  even  the  seed  deposited 
in  them.  Subsoil  plowing  should  be  repeated  once  in  five  or 
six  years ; going  each  time  a little  deeper  than  before,  till  the 
greatest  practical  depth  is  attained. 

Subsoil  plowing  is  not  applicable,  however,  to  all  lands. 
Where  the  subsoil  is  loose  and  leachy,  consisting  of  an  excess  of 
sand  or  gravel,  it  is  not  only  unnecessary  but  positively  injurious. 

The  gradual  mixing  of  the  subsoil  with  the  soil  which  results 
from  subsoil  plowing  is  especially  beneficial  to  lands  which 
have  been  for  a long  time  under  cultivation,  and  have  become 
partially  exhausted.  A fresh  supply  of  the  inorganic  elements 
is  thus  furnished  for  the  nourishment  of  vegetation,  and  new 
avenues  opened  to  those  powerful  agents  of  fertilizing  decom- 
position, the  air  and  the  rains. 

Where  underdraining  is  required,  it  should  precede  the  sub- 
soiling, and  the  surface  of  the  drains  should  be  sufficiently 
below  the  surface  not  to  be  disturbed  by  the  subsoil  plow. 

With  the  exception  we  have  noted,  where  the  subsoil  is  loose 
and  leachy,  subsoil  plowing,  though  expensive,  will  most  cer- 
tainly “pay,”  as  experience  has  amply  proved. 

The  subject  of  improving  soils  will  be  continued  in  the  next 
two  chapters,  under  the  heads  of  Manures  and  Draining. 


Manures. 


25 


II. 

MANURES. 


Manures,  iu  som»  form,  must  be  considered  absolutely  essential  to  sustaining  soils  subjected 
to  tillage. — AUen. 

I.— NECESSITY  OF  MANURES. 


HILE  soils  remain  covered  by  unbroken  for- 
Nil  ests,  they  not  only  retain  their  fertility,  but 

fljjy. 

~ actually  grow  richer  and  richer  from  year  to 
year,  notwithstanding  the  vast  amount  of  nutritive 
matter  annually  absorbed  by  the  roots  of  the  grow- 
ing trees.  Everything  thus  taken  from  them  is  ulti- 
mately returned  with  interest.  The  leaves  and 
broken  twigs,  and  eventually  the  branches,  trunk,  and  roots,  in 
their  decay,  give  back  not  only  what  they  received  from  the 
soil,  but  much,  in  addition,  that  they  have  elaborated  from  the 
atmosphere.  We  receive  from  the  hands  of  nature  no  worn- 
out  lands;  but  her  system  of  tillage  is  very  different  from 
ours. 

The  productive  power  of  soils  subjected  to  cultivation  is  grad- 
ually exhausted  by  the  process.  Some  of  the  alluvial  lands  of 
Yirginia  produced  large  annual  crops  of  corn  and  tobacco  for 
more  than  a century,  without  any  return  being  made  to  them 
for  the  elements  of  fertility  abstracted;  but  these  lands  are  now 
nearly  valueless.  The  secondary  “ bottoms”  of  the  Scioto  and 


26 


The  Farm. 


Miami  may  retain  an  apparently  undiminished  fertility  for  a 
still  longer  period,  but  they  must  ultimately  fail,  and  unless  a 
system  of  cultivation  radically  different  from  that  now  pursued 
he  adopted,  become  like  the  worn-out  lands  of  some  of  the 
older  portions  of  the  country.  Eeliable  statistical  tables  prove 
beyond  a doubt  that,  notwithstanding  our  improved  farm  im- 
plements and  superior  methods  of  cultivation,  the  average 
yield,  per  acre,  of  the  cultivated  lands  of  the  State  of  New  York 
has  decreased  considerably  since  1844,  when  the  records  on 
which  these  tables  are  founded  were  commenced.  In  corn  the 
decrease  is  nearly  four  bushels  per  acre ; in  wheat  nearly  two 
bushels ; and  in  potatoes,  partly  owing  to  the  rot,  no  doubt, 
twenty-two  and  a half  bushels.  The  falling  off  would  have 
been  still  greater  had  not  deeper  tillage  and  better  husbandry 
furnished  a partial  offset  to  the  decreased  fertility  of  the  soil. 

These  are  instructive  facts,  and  should  cause  the  farmer  to 
pause  and  reflect. 

The  fruitfulness  of  a soil  is  decreased  or  increased  according 
to  inexorable  laws.  With  each  crop  that  is  taken  from  a plot 
of  ground  a greater  or  less  amount  of  each  of  the  elements  of 
fertility — silex,  potash,  lime,  soda,  magnesia,  chlorine,  etc. — is 
necessarily  removed.  Another  portion  is  lost  in  the  process  of 
cultivation  independently  of  what  is  taken  up  by  the  plants. 
Continue  this  process  year  after  year,  and  what  must  be  the 
result  ? Ultimate  barrenness,  of  course.  There  is  no  remedy 
but  to  supply  in  the  form  of  manures  what  is  thus  taken  away. 
The  farmer  must  feed  the  land  which  feeds  him  and  so  many 
others,  or  in  the  end  all  must  starve  together.  In  the  older 
portions  of  our  country  at  least,  the  time  has  come  when  the 
importance  of  manuring  should  be  more  fully  appreciated. 

II.— THE  FOOD  OF  PLANTS. 

In  burning  a dried  plant  of  any  kind,  we  find  that  the  great- 
er portion  of  it  is  dissipated  in  the  process.  Generally  only 
from  three  to  ten  per  cent,  is  left.  This  is  in  the  form  of  ash 
or  ashes.  The  portion  driven  off  has  evidently  disappeared  in 


Manures. 


27 


the  air,  in  a gaseous  form.  It  is  found  by  a method  of  analysis 
which  we  can  not  here  stop  to  describe,  that  it  was  composed 
of  four  elements — carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen. 
These  are  called  the  organic  parts  of  plants. 

An  analysis  of  the  incombustible  portion  remaining  shows 
it  to  be  composed,  as  a general  rule,  of  these  ten  substances — 
potash,  soda,  magnesia,  lime,  oxyd  of  iron,  oxyd  of  manganese, 
silica,  chlorine,  sulphuric  acid,  and  phosphoric  acid.  All  these 
substances  are  generally  present  in  our  cultivated  crops,  but 
not  invariably ; one  or  two  of  them  being  sometimes  absent. 
In  some  species  of  plants  one  of  these  is  wanting  and  in  other 
species  another,  and  the  proportions  vary  greatly  in  different 
species  of  plants.  Of  these  differences  we  shall  have  occasion 
to  speak  farther  under  the  head  of  rotation  of  crops. 

Both  the  organic  and  inorganic  parts  of  plants  are  made  up 
from  their  food,  which  must  of  course  consist  of  both  organic 
and  inorganic  materials.  The  former  are  obtained  partly  from 
the  soil  and  partly  from  the  air ; the  latter  come  exclusively 
from  the  soil.  A fertile  soil  must  therefore  contain,  in  sufficient 
quantity  and  in  an  available  form,  all  the  constituents  of  plants ; 
and  to  maintain  its  fertility  under  cultivation,  these  constituents 
must  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  manures  so  fast  as  they  are 
taken  up  by  the  crops  produced. 

The  food  of  plants,  so  far  as  it  is  derived  from  the  soil,  is  all 
received  through  the  roots  in  a state  of  solution ; and  the  roots 
have,  to  a certain  extent,  the  power  of  selecting  their  food  and 
of  rejecting  whatever  would  prove  hurtful  to  the  plant.  Dele- 
terious agents  brought  in  contact  with  them  may,  however, 
under  certain  circumstances,  be  taken  up  by  mere  capillary  at- 
traction, and  the  plant  thereby  poisoned. 

III.— WHAT  THE  DIFFERENT  CROPS  TAKE  FROM  THE  SOIL. 

In  examining  the  ash  of  the  different  cultivated  plants,  wo 
observe,  as  we  have  already  hinted,  great  differences  in  the 
proportions  in  which  the  various  elements  exist.  The  ash  from 
the  stem  or  the  leaves  of  a plant  and  from  the  seeds  of  the  same 


23 


The  Faem. 


plant  also  varies  considerably.  The  following  table  gives  the 
composition  of  our  most  common  cultivated  crops : 


Indian 

Corn. 

Wheat. 

Wheat 

Straw. 

Rye. 

Oats. 

Po- 

tatoes. 

Tur- 

nips. 

Hay. 

Carbonic  acid 

a trace 









10.4 





Sulphuric  acid 

.5 

1.0 

1.0 

1.5 

10.5 

7.1 

13.6 

2.7 

Phosphoric  acid  . . 

49.2 

4T.0 

3.1 

47.3 

43.8 

11.3 

7.6 

6.0 

Chlorine 

0.3 

a trace 

0 6 



0.3 

2.7 

35 

2.6 

Lime 

0.1 

2.9 

8.5 

2.9 

4.9 

1.8 

13.6 

22.9 

Magnesia 

1T.5 

15.9 

5.0 

10.1 

9.9 

5.4 

5.3 

5.7 

Potash 

23.2 

29.5 

7.2 

32.8 

27.2 

51.5 

42.0 

18.2 

Soda 

3.8 

a trace 

0.3 

4.4 

27.2 

a trace 

5.2 

2.3 

Silica 

0.9 

1.3 

67.6 

0.2 

2.7 

8.6 

7.9 

37.9 

Iron 

0.1 

a trace 

1.0 

0.8 

0.4 

0.5 

1.3 

1.7 

Loss 

4.5 

2.4 

5.7 

— 

0.3 

0.7 

— 

— 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

With  reference  to  the  character  of  their  ash,  we  may  arrange 
these  crops  into  three  grand  classes : 

1.  The  grains  in  which  phosphoric  acid  predominates 

2.  The  roots  in  which  potash  and  soda  abound. 

3.  The  grasses  in  which  lime  is  an  important  element. 

In  straw  and  the  stems  of  the  grasses  silica  is  abundant,  con- 
stituting  from  one  half  to  two  thirds  of  the  whole  weight.  The 
wood  of  trees  gives  an  ash  in  which  lime  is  a prominent  ingre- 
dient. There  are  particularly  large  quantities  in  that  of  fruit- 
trees. 

The  foregoing  facts  furnish  hints  toward  a sound  system  of 
manuring,  and  show  how  important  to  the  farmer  is  a knowledge 
of  the  composition  and  mode  of  action  of  the  various  manures. 

IY.— CLASSIFICATION  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  MANURES. 

Manure,  in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  word,  is  anything  which 
added  to  the  soil,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  promotes  the 
growth  of  plants.  All  manures  might  be  considered  under 
two  heads--  -organic  and  inorganic  ; but  it  will  better  serve  our 
present  purpose  to  arrange  them  in  three  grand  classes,  veget- 
able, animal , and  mineral . 

1.  Vegetable  Manures. 

Vegetable  manures  are  not  so  energetic  in  their  action  as 


Manures. 


29 


those  of  animal  or  mineral  origin,  but  their  effects  are  more 
durable ; and  the  wise  agriculturist  will  avail  himself  largely  of 
the  cheap  means  of  ameliorating  his  soil  which  they  afford. 

1.  Green  Crops. — Plowing  in  green  crops,  such  as  clover, 
spurry,  sainfoin,  buckwheat,  cow-peas,  turnips  (sown  thickly), 
Indian  corn,  etc.,  is  one  of  the  best  modes  of  renovating  and 
sustaining  a soil.  Worn-out-lands,  unsalable  at  ten  dollars 
an  acre,  have  by  this  means,  while  steadily  remunerating  their 
proprietors  by  their  returning  crops  for  all  the  outlay  of  labor 
and  money,  been  brought  up  in  value  to  fifty  dollars  an  acre. 

For  the  Northern  States  red  clover  has  been  found  best  fitted 
for  a green  manure ; but  in  particular  cases  some  other  crop 
may  be  used  with  greater  advantage.  At  the  South,  the  cow- 
pea  (which  is  no  pea,  but  a bean)  is  considered  the  best  fertilizer. 
K.  L.  Allen,  in  the  ‘‘American  Farm  Book,”  says,  “The  advan- 
tages of  green  manures  consist  mainly  in  the  addition  of  organic 
matter  which  they  make  to  the  soil.  The  presence  of  this  aids 
in  the  liberation  of  those  mineral  ingredients  which  are  there 
locked  up,  and  which,  on  being  set  free,  act  with  so  much  ad- 
vantage to  the  crop.  The  roots  also  exert  a power  in  effecting 
this  decomposition,  beyond  any  other  known  agents,  either  of 
nature  or  art.  Their  minute  fibers  are  brought  into  contact 
with  the  elements  of  the  soil  and  they  act  upon  them  with  a 
force  peculiar  to  themselves  alone.  Their  agency  is  far  more 
efficacious  for  this  purpose  than  the  intensest  heat  or  strongest 
acids,  persuading  the  elements  to  give  up  for  their  own  use 
what  is  essential  to  their  maturity  and  perfection.  By  sub- 
stituting a crop  for  a naked  fallow,  we  have  all  the  fibers  of  the 
roots  throughout  the  field,  aiding  the  decomposition  which  is 
slowly  going  forward  in  every  soil. 

“ Clover  and  most  broad-leaved  plants  draw  largely  for  their 
sustenance  from  the  air,  especially  when  aided  by  the  appli- 
cation of  gypsum.  By  its  long  tap  roots,  clover  also  draws 
much  from  the  subsoil ; as  all  plants  appropriate  such  saline 
substances  as  are  necessary  to  their  maturity,  and  which  are 
brought  to  their  roots  in  a state  of  solution,  by  the  up-welling 


30 


The  Farm. 


moisture  from  beneath.  This  last  is  frequently  a great  source 
of  improvement  to  the  soil.  The  amount  of  carbon  drawn 
from  the  air  in  the  state  of  carbonic  acid,  and  of  ammonia  and 
nitric  acid,  under  favorable  circumstances  of  soil  and  crop,  is 
very  great ; and  when  buried  beneath  the  surface,  all  are  saved 
and  yield  their  fertility  to  the  land ; while  such  vegetation  as 
decays  on  the  surface  loses  much  of  its  value  by  evaporation 
and  drainage.  In  the  green  state,  fermentation  is  rapid,  and 
by  resolving  the  matter  of  plants  into  their  elements,  it  fits  the 
ground  at  once  for  a succeeding  crop.” 

The  proper  time  to  turn  in  most  plants  used  as  green  manure 
is  at  the  season  of  blossoming. 

The  same  effects  follow  the  plowing  of  grass  lands,  and  turn- 
ing under  the  turf ; and  the  thicker  and  heavier  the  sward  the 
better,  since  then  a larger  amount  of  organic  matter  in  the  form 
of  roots  is  added  to  the  soil. 

1.  Straw , Leaves , etc. — Straw,  leaves,  hay  are  usually  applied 
to  the  lands  after  they  have  either  been  worked  over  by  ani- 
mals and  mixed  with  their  manures,  or  composted  with  other 
substances  and  decomposed ; but  clayey  soils  are  benefited  by 
their  application  in  an  undecayed  state. 

Potato  tops  or  haulm;  bean  haulm;  weeds,  pulled  before 
they  have  seeded,  and  all  kinds  of  vegetable  refuse,  are  readily 
decomposed  by  the  addition  of  a small  quantity  of  animal  sub- 
stances or  lime,  and  should  be  carefully  composted. 

3.  Sea-weed. — Sea-weed  and  pond-weed  form  valuable  ma- 
nures. The  former  is  particularly  rich  in  the  substances  most 
needed  by  our  crops,  the  ash  containing,  according  to  Professor 
Johnston,  the  following  constituents  and  proportions : 


Potash  and  soda from  15  to  40  per  cent. 


Lime 

Magnesia 

Common  salt 

Phosphate  of  lime  . 

Sulphuric  acid 

Silica 


• 21 

7 “ 15 
3 “ 85 

8 “ 10 
14  “ 31 

1 “ 11 


Farmers  who  live  near  the  coast  should  embrace  every  op- 


Manures. 


31 


portunity  of  getting  it.  It  may  be  plowed  in  green  or  applied 
as  a compost.  In  either  case,  it  decomposes  very  rapidly,  and 
its  effects  are  immediately  seen. 

4.  Cotton  Seed. — At  the  South,  cotton  seed  is  much  used  as  a 
manure,  and  is  very  valuable  for  that  purpose.  It  is  applied  at 
the  rate  of  from  eighty  to  a hundred  bushels  per  acre.  It  may 
he  sown  broadcast  and  plowed  in  during  the  winter,  when  it 
will  rot  before  spring,  or  it  may  be  left  in  heaps  to  heat  till  its 
vitality  is  destroyed,  when  it  may  be  thrown  upon  the  corn 
hills  and  covered  with  the  hoe  or  plow. 

5.  Turf,  Muck,  Mud,  etc. — Rich  turf,  full  of  the  roots  of  the 
grasses  and  decayed  vegetable  matter,  is  valuable  as  an  absorb- 
ent of  animal  or  other  manures  in  compost  heaps.  Mixing  it  with 
lime,  and  leaving  it  several  weeks  to  decompose,  is  a good  pre- 
paratory process. 

Swamp  muck,  pond  mud,  and  the  scourings  of  old  ditches, 
are  exceedingly  rich  in  vegetable  matter,  and  may  as  well  be 
mentioned  here  as  anywhere  else.  These  are  all  exceedingly 
useful  as  manures  ; but  differ  in  richness  according  to  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  they  have  been  formed.  When  there 
is  no  outlet  for  the  water  and  sediments,  and  the  mud,  besides 
containing  a large  proportion  of  salts,  the  result  of  ages  of  evap- 
oration, is  the  receptacle  of  the  remains  of  myriads  of  minute 
shell-fish,  animalcules,  infusorias,  and  the  spawn  and  exuvia  of 
frogs  and  other  occupants,  the  mud  is  especially  valuable.  Such 
reservoirs  of  vegetable  nutrition  are  mines  of  wealth  to  the 
farmer,  if  judiciously  applied. 

Dana,  in  his  valuable  “Muck  Manual,”  says: 

“ The  salts  of  geine*  in  a cord  of  peat  are  equal  to  the  ma- 
nure of  one  cow  for  three  months.  It  is  certainly  very  curious 
that  Nature  herself  should  have  prepared  a substance  whose 
agricultural  value  approaches  so  near  to  cow-dung,  the  type  of 
manures.  Departing  from  cow-dung,  and  wandering  through 


* Geine,  in  its  agricultural  sense,  includes  all  the  decomposed  organic  mat-* 
tera  of  the  soil.  In  some  form  it  is  absolutely  essential  to  agriculture. 


32 


The  Fakm. 


all  the  varieties  of  animal  and  vegetable  manures,  we  land  in  a 
peat-bog.  The  substance  under  our  feet  is  analyzed,  and  found 
to  be  cow -dung,  without  its  musky  breath  of  cow  odor,  or  the 
power  of  generating  ammonia,  except  some  varieties  of  peat. 
The  power  of  producing  alkaline  action  on  the  in- 
soluble geine  is  alone  wanting  to  make  it  equal  to  cow-dung.” 

According  to  this  statement,  we  have  but  to  add  an  alkali 
in  the  proper  proportion,  to  produce  a manure  equally  valu- 
able with  cow-dung.  From  sixteen  to  twenty-four  bushels,  ac- 
cording to  their  strength,  of  wood  ashes,  or  about  sixty  pounds 
of  soda  ash,  will  supply  in  full  the  lacking  elements ; but  as 
clear  cow-dung  may  profitably  be  mixed  with  two  parts  of  loam 
or  muck,  so  two  thirds  of  the  alkali  may  be  omitted  from  the 
muck  mixture,  to  make  it  correspond  with  the  cow-dung  com- 
post. 

“The  best  plan,”  Dana  says,  “for  preparing  the  artificial  ma- 
nure, is  to  dig  the  peat  in  the  fall,  and  mix  it  in  the  spring  with 
eight  bushels  of  common  house  ashes  or  twenty  pounds  of  soda 
ash  to  every  cord  of  muck,  estimating  the  quantity  when  fresh 
dug,  and  making  no  allowance  for  shrinkage.  If  ashes  be  used, 
they  may  be  mixed  at  once  with  the  muck,  but  the  soda  ash 
should  be  dissolved  in  water  and  the  heap  evenly  wet  with  it. 
In  either  case  it  must  be  well  shoveled  over.  If  leached  or 
spent  ashes  be  used,  add  one  cord  to  three  cords  of  the  muck.” 

The  salt  and  lime  mixture,  described  in  another  section, 
may  be  added  to  muck  in  the  proportions  of  four  bushels  of  the 
mixture  to  one  cord  of  the  muck,  making  a very  effective  ma- 
nure ; or  the  latter  may  be  composted  with  stable  manure  or 
any  animal  matter  found  about  the  house  or  barn. 

2.  Animal  Manuees. 

These  comprise  the  flesh,  blood,  hair,  bones,  horns,  excre- 
ments, etc.,  of  animals.  They  contain  more  nitrogen  than  veg- 
etable manures,  and  are  far  more  powerful. 

1.  Stable  Manures. — The  standard  manure  of  this  country 
is  that  from  the  stable  and  barn-yard.  The  principal  varieties 


Manures. 


33 


are  those  of  the  ox,  the  cow,  the  horse,  and  the  sheep.  Of 
these,  that  of  the  horse  is  the  most  valuable  in  its  fresh  state, 
but  is  very  liable,  as  ordinarily  treated,  to  lose  much  of  its  value 
by  fermentation  ; that  of  the  sheep  comes  next ; while  that  of 
the  cow  is  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  list,  because  the  enrich- 
ing substance  of  her  food  goes  principally  to  the  formation  of 
milk.  That  of  the  ox  is  better.  The  value  of  each  of  these 
manures  varies  also  with  the  food  and  condition  of  the  animals 
from  whom  it  is  obtained. 

The  manure  of  any  animal  is  richer  than  the  food  given  to  it, 
because  it  contains,  in  addition  to  the  residuum  of  the  food,  cer- 
tain particles  belonging  to  the  body  of  the  animal.  The  extent 
to  which  it  is  animalized  depends  upon  the  thoroughness  of  the 
digestion,  fatness  of  the  animal,  and  the  drain  made  upon  the 
elements  of  nutrition  by  the  system.  The  manure  of  well-kept 
cattle,  it  is  readily  seen,  is  far  more  valuable  than  that  from 
those  which  are  barely  kept  alive. 

All  the  urine,  as  well  as  the  solid  excrements  of  animals, 
should  be  carefully  preserved.  It  is  very  rich  in  nitrogen  and 
the  phosphates,  and  some  writers  on  agriculture  contend  that 
its  value,  if  properly  preserved  and  applied,  is  greater  than  that 
of  the  dung.  From  an  experiment  made  in  Scotland,  it  appears 
that  in  five  months  each  cow  discharges  urine  which  when  ab- 
sorbed by  loam  furnishes  manure  enough  of  the  richest  quality 
and  most  durable  effects  for  half  an  acre  of  ground.  Think  of 
this,  ye  American  farmers,  who  are  accustomed  to  allow  so 
much  of  this  richness  to  run  to  waste ! The  urine  of  three  cows 
for  one  year  is  worth  more  than  a ton  of  guano , which  would 
cost  from  fifty  to  sixty  dollars!  Will  you  continue  to  waste 
urine  and  buy  guano?  Various  methods  of  preserving  and 
applying  it  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  intelligent  farmer. 
Stables  may  be  so  constructed  that  the  liqiuid  discharges  of  the 
cattle,  together  with  the  wash  of  the  barn-yard,  may  be  con- 
ducted to  a tank  or  cistern,  to  be  pumped  out  and  applied  di- 
rectly to  the  land,  or  absorbed  by  saw-dust,  charcoal  dust,  turf, 
etc.,  and  used  in  that  form.  If  allowed  to  stand  long  in  the 


34 


The  Farm. 


tank,  in  a liquid  form,  fermentation  is  liable  to  take  place,  and 
the  ammonia  to  pass  otf ; but  a few  pounds  of  plaster  of  Paris 
occasionally  thrown  in  will  cause  the  formation  of  the  sulphate 
of  ammonia,  which  will  not  evaporate. 

But  the  waste  of  manures  is  not  confined  to  thos-  of  the 
liquid  form.  The  solid  excrements  of  the  animals  are  often 
left  to  drain,  bleach,  or  ferment,  till  the  greater  portion  of  their 
most  valuable  elements  have  disappeared.  Stable  manures 
should  be  sheltered  from  the  sun  and  rain , and  fermenting  heaps 
so  covered  with  turf  or  loam  as  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  fer- 
tilizing gases . Plaster,  as  in  the  case  of  urine,  will  aid  in  re- 
taining the  ammonia.  Boussingault,  one  of  the  most  accurate 
of  experimenters  in  agricultural  chemistry,  states  that  while 
the  nitrogen  in  fresh  horse-dung  is  two  and  seven  tenths  per 
cent.,  that  in  the  fermented  and  dried  dung  is  only  one  per  cent. 
Horse-dung  should  be  mixed  at  once  with  other  manures,  or 
with  turf  or  loam,  to  retain  its  full  value.  The  manure  of  sheep 
is  strong  and  very  active,  and,  next  to  that  of  the  horse,  is  most 
liable  to  heat  and  decompose. 

2.  Hog  Manure. — The  manure  of  swine  is  strong  and  valu- 
able. Swamp  muck,  weeds,  straw,  leaves,  etc.,  should  be  thrown 
into  the  sty  in  liberal  quantities,  to  be  rooted  over  and  mixed 
with  the  dung.  In  this  way  from  five  to  ten  loads  of  manure 
per  annum  may  be  obtained  from  a single  hog. 

3.  The  Manure  of  Fowls , etc. — The  excrements  of  birds  con- 
tain both  the  feces  and  urine  combined,  and  are  exceedingly 
rich  in  nitrogen  and  the  phosphates.  The  manure  of  hens, 
turkeys,  geese,  ducks,  and  pigeons  should  be  carefully  collected 
and  preserved.  Do  not  think  that  because  the  quantity  is 
small,  it  is  hardly  worth  the  trouble  of  collection.  Professor 
Horton  says  that  three  or  four  hundred  pounds  of  such  ma- 
nure, that  has  not  been  exposed  to  the  rain  or  sun , is  equal  in 
value  to  from  fourteen  to  eighteen  loads  of  stable  manure!  It 
may  be  kept  dry,  reduced  to  a powder,  and  applied  as  a top 
dressing,  or  formed  into  a compost  with  muck,  turf,  decayed 
leaves,  charcoal  dust,  or  other  absorbents.  If  exposed  to  the 


Manures. 


35 


weather  uncovered,  much  of  its  value  is  quickly  destroyed. 
The  custom  adopted  by  some  farmers  of  mixing  the  excrements 
of  fowls  with  unleaclied  ashes,  quick-lime,  etc.,  is  not  founded 
on  correct  principles,  and  inevitably  deteriorates  the  manure. 

4.  Guano. — Guano  is  formed  from  the  excrements  of  sea- 
birds, mixed  with  the  remains  of  the  fish  on  which  they  prey, 
their  own  carcasses,  and  other  animal  matters.  It  is  found  in 
tropical  latitudes,  where  it  seldom  rains,  and  where  immense 
numbers  of  sea-birds  have  resorted  for  ages,  to  build  their  nests 
and  rear  their  young.  Here  their  excrements,  etc.,  have  accu- 
mulated till  beds  of  from  fifteen  to  thirty  feet  in  thickness  have 
in  some  instances  been  formed.  Of  its  value  as  a manure  there 
can  be  no  doubt ; but  circumstances  must  determine  whether 
in  any  given  case  it  can  profitably  be  purchased  and  applied  at 
the  prices  at  which  it  is  held. 

Professor  Horton  gives  the  composition  of  a few  of  the  lead- 
ing varieties  of  guano  as  follows : 


VARIETY. 

Water,  per 
cent. 

Organic  Mat- 
ter and  Am- 
nioniacal  Salts. 

Phosphates. 

Bolivian 

5-7 

56-64 

25-29 

Peruvian 

7-10 

56-66 

16-23 

Chilian 

10-13 

50-56 

22-30 

Ichaboe 

18-26 

36-44 

21-29 

The  guano  of  commerce  is  often  adulterated,  and  great  cau- 
tion should  be  exercised  in  buying  it.  That  purchased  directly 
from  the  agent  in  Peru,  in  Hew  York,  may,  it  is  said,  be  relied 
upon  as  absolutely  pure. 

In  applying  guano,  care  should  be  taken  that  it  do  not  come 
in  contact  with  any  seed,  as  it  might  destroy  its  vitality. 

5.  Fish  Manures. — These  are  available  near  the  sea-coast 
only,  where  they  furnish  an  important  source  of  fertility,  which 
should  not  be  neglected.  The  flesh  of  fish  acts  with  great 
energy  in  hastening  the  growth  of  plants.  It  decomposes 
rapidly,  and  should  be  at  once  plowed  under,  or  made  into  a 
well-covered  compost  heat. 

6.  Night  Soil. — From  the  analysis  of  Berzelius,  the  excre- 


36 


Tiie  Farm. 


ments  of  a healthy  man  yielded — water,  733 ; albumen,  9 ; bile, 
9;  mucilage,  fat,  and  the  animal  matters,  167 ; saline  matters, 
12;  and  undecomposed  food,  70,  in  1,000  parts.  When  freed 
from  water,  1,000  parts  left,  of  ash,  132;  and  this  yielded — car- 
bonate of  soda,  8 ; sulphate  of  soda,  with  a little  sulphate  of 
potash  and  phosphate  of  soda,  8 ; phosphate  of  lime  and  mag- 
nesia, and  a trace  of  gypsum,  100;  silica,  16. 

Human  urine,  according  to  the  same  authority,  gives  in  every 
1,000  parts — of  water,  933 ; urea,  30.1 ; uric  acid,  1 ; free  acetic 
acid,  lactate  of  ammonia,  and  inseparable  animal  matter,  17.1; 
mucus  of  the  bladder,  .3 ; sulphate  of  potash,  3.7 ; sulphate  of 
soda,  3.2;  phosphate  of  soda,  2.9;  phosphate  of  ammonia,  1.6; 
common  salt,  4.5 ; sal-ammoniac,  1.5 ; phosphates  of  lime  and 
magnesia,  with  a trace  of  silica  and  of  fluoride  of  calcium,  1.1. 

Urea  is  a solid  product  of  urine,  and,  according  to  Prout, 
gives — of  carbon,  19.99 ; oxygen,  26.63;  hydrogen,  6.65  ; nitro- 
gen, 46.65,  in  100  parts.  The  analyses  of  Woehler  and  Liebig 
differ  immaterially  from  this.  Such  are  the  materials,  abound- 
ing in  every  ingredient  that  can  minister  to  the  production  of 
plants,  which  are  suffered  to  waste  in  the  air,  and  taint  its 
purity  and  healthfulness.  Boussingault  considers  the  excre- 
ments of  a single  man  during  a year  sufficient  to  produce  four- 
teen and  a half  bushels  of  wheat. 

Doubtless  much  of  the  waste  of  night-soil,  which  has  been 
permitted  in  this  country,  has  resulted  from  the  offensive  odor 
it  imparts  and  the  supposed  difficulty  of  managing  it.  These 
difficulties  are  easily  obviated  in  various  ways.  Allen,  in 
his  “American  Farm  Book,”  recommends  that  tight  wooden 
boxes,  with  hooks  on  the  outer  side,  to  which  a team  may  be  at- 
tached for  drawing  them  out,  be  placed  under  the  privy.  These 
boxes  should  have  a layer  of  charcoal  dust,  charred  peat,  or 
plaster  of  Paris  at  the  bottom,  and  others  successively  as  they 
become  filled.  These  materials  are  cheap,  compact,  and  read- 
ily combine  with  the  volatile  gases.  Sulphuric  acid  is  more 
efficient  than  either,  but  more  expensive.  Quick-lime  will  neu- 
tralize the  odor,  but  it  expels  the  enriching  qualities;  and  if  it  bo 


Manures. 


37 


intended  to  use  the  night-soil,  lime  should  never  be  mixed  with 
it.  Both  the  charcoal  and  peat  condense  and  retain  the  gases 
in  their  pores,  and  the  sulphuric  acid  of  the  gypsum  leaves  the 
lime,  and  like  the  free  acid,  combines  with  the  ammonia,  form- 
ing sulphate  of  ammonia,  an  inodorous  and  powerful  fertilizer. 
Raw  peat,  turf,  dry  tan-bark,  saw-dust,  and  leached  ashes  are 
all  good ; but  as  more  bulk  is  needed  to  effect  the  object,  their 
use  is  attended  with  greater  inconvenience.  From  its  great 
tendency  to  decompose,  night  soil  should  he  immediately  cov- 
ered with  earth  when  exposed  to  the  air. 

7.  Fies\  Bloody  Hair , etc. — Dead  animals,  the  blood  and  of- 
fal from  slaughter-houses,  are  among  the  most  powerful  of  fer- 
tilizers— equal  to  guano  and  the  other  costly  manures ; and  yet 
it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  horses  or  cattle  that  die  from  disease 
drawn  out  into  the  wood  to  decay  on  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Every  animal  that  dies  should  be  made  into  compost  at  once. 
Covered  with  a few  inches  of  turf  or  loam,  decomposition  goes 
on  without  the  loss  of  the  fertilizing  element,  and  a manure  of 
the  most  valuable  kind  is  produced.  In  large  animals  the  flesh 
should  he  separated  from  the  hones,  and  the  latter  he  subjected 
to  one  of  the  processes  described  in  the  next  section. 

Hair,  woolen  rags,  leather  shavings  from  the  shoe-shops,  and 
all  other  refuse  animal  matters,  should  he  carefully  preserved 
and  composted,  as  they  make  very  rich  manure. 

8.  Bones. — The  value  of  bones  as  a manure  is  just  beginning 
to  be  appreciated  in  this  country.  u They  unite,”  Professor 
Horton  says,  “some  of  the  most  efficacious  and  desirable  organic 
and  inorganic  manures.”  Boiled  bones  have  lost  most  of  their 
organic  parts,  but  are  still  very  valuable,  being  rich  in  phos- 
phate of  lime.  They  are  generally  crushed  to  fine  fragments 
in  mills,  and  thus  applied  to  the  land.  Another  way  of  apply- 
ing them  is  in  a state  of  solution,  by  sulphuric  acid  (oil  of  vit- 
riol). Professor  Horton  thus  describes  the  process  of  dissolv- 
ing them : 

“To  every  hundred  pounds  of  bones,  from  fifty  to  sixty  pounds 
of  the  acid  is  taken ; or  if  bone-dust  be  used,  from  twenty-five  to 


38 


The  Farm. 


forty-five  pounds  of  the  acid  will  be  sufficient.  The  acid  must 
be  diluted  with  three  times  its  bulk  of  water.  The  bones  are 
placed  in  a tub  and  a portion  of  the  acid,  previously  diluted, 
poured  upon  them.  After  standing  a day,  another  portion  ot 
the  acid  may  be  poured  on ; and  finally  the  last  on  the  third 
day,  if  they  be  not  already  dissolved.  The  mass  should  be 
often  stirred.  It  will  dissolve  into  a kind  of  paste,  which  may 
be  mixed  with  twenty  or  thirty  times  its  bulk  of  water,  and 
applied  to  the  land  by  means  of  an  ordinary  water  cart ; but  a 
more  convenient  method,  in  most  cases,  is  to  thoroughly  mix 
the  pasty  mass  with  a large  quantity  of  coal  ashes,  earth,  saw- 
dust, or  charcoal  dust.  It  can  then  be  sown  by  hand  or  dropped 
from  a drill  machine.  Two  or  three  bushels  of  these  dissolved 
bones,  with  half  the  usual  quantity  of  yard  manure,  will  be  suf- 
ficient for  an  acre.” 

Bones  make  a cheap  as  well  as  a rich  manure,  and  no  thought- 
ful farmer  will  suffer  one  to  be  wasted  about  his  house. 

3.  Mineral  Manures. 

1.  Lime. — Lime  is  applied  to  land  in  three  different  states — 
as  quick-lime,  slaked  lime,  and  mild  or  air-slaked  lime.  To 
cold,  stiff,  newly  drained  land,  especially  if  there  exist  in  it 
much  of  acid  organic  compounds,  it  is  best  to  apply  quick-lime 
or  caustic  hydrate  (slaked  lime),  as  it  will  have  a more  energetic 
effect  in  ameliorating  it.  On  light  soils  mild  or  air-slaked 
lime  is  considered  most  beneficial.  It  is  best  to  apply  lime 
frequently  and  in  small  quantities,  so  as  to  keep  it  near  the  sur- 
face and  always  active. 

Lime,  as  we  have  seen,  is  an  essential  ingredient  in  soil,  being 
constantly  needed  by  the  plants  in  all  their  parts.  It  may  always 
be  added  with  profit  wherever  it  does  not  already  exist  in  suf- 
ficient quantity. 

2.  Marls. — In  true  marl  the  principal  element  of  fertility  is 
the  lime  which  it  contains ; but  its  value  is  increased  by  the 
greater  or  less  proportion  of  magnesia  and  phosphoric  acid 
which  are  usually  combined  with  it. 


Manures. 


39 


A valuable  mineral  fertilizer  generally  called  marl,  but  which 
contains  comparatively  little  lime,  abounds  in  parts  of  New 
Jersey  and  Delaware.  Its  predominant  characteristic  is  a green 
granular  mineral  or  sand.  The  carbonate  of  lime  in  shells, 
scattered  through  it,  varies  from  ten  to  twenty  per  cent,  in  some 
specimens,  while  others  are  almost  entirely  destitute  of  it.  The 
secret  of  its  value  lies  chiefly  in  the  from  ten  to  twelve  per  cent, 
of  potash  which  the  best  specimens  contain.  Magnesia  is  also 
often  present.  Its  effects  upon  the  light  sandy  soils  of  New 
Jersey  are  very  striking  indeed. 

3.  Gypsum. — Gypsum,  or  plaster  of  Paris,  is  a sulphate  of 
lime,  and  has  been  found  one  of  the  cheapest  and  most  power- 
ful fertilizers  derived  from  the  mineral  kingdom.  In  reference 
to  the  manner  in  which  plaster  acts  there  has  been  some  con- 
troversy among  agricultural  chemists ; some  contending  that  it 
serves  as  a direct  food  of  certain  plants,  while  others  maintain 
that  its  utility  is  due  to  its  power  of  absorbing  gases  and  hold- 
ing them  in  contact  with  the  roots  of  plants.  Late  experiments 
seem  to  prove  that  it  acts  in  both  these  modes.  When  scat- 
tered over  compost  heaps,  it  is  known  to  absorb  ammonia  and 
prevent  its  escape.  On  grass  lands  it  is  best  to  sow  it  in  damp 
weather  or  while  the  dew  is  on.  Sow  broadcast  at  the  rate  of 
a bushel  to  the  acre.  Seed  potatoes  may  be  wet  and  rolled  in 
plaster  before  planting  w*ith  decided  advantage ; and  we  know 
of  no  better  way  of  applying  it  to  corn  than  to  give  the  seed  a 
coat  before  putting  it  in  the  ground.  Hon.  A.  B.  Dickenson’s 
mode  of  applying  plaster,  lime,  etc.,  is  an  excellent  one.  We 
insert  his  directions  as  given  in  one  of  his  inimitable  agricultu- 
ral addresses:  “I  will  tell  you  how  you  can  put  a coat  of  tar 

over  all  kinds  of  seed  as  evenly  as  a painter  could  put  a coat  of 
paint  over  a board  with  his  brush.  An  iron  kettle  is  the  best 
to  mix  the  tar  and  water.  Have  sufficient  boiling  water  to  cut 
the  tar;  mix  it  with  the  hot  water;  then  pour  in  sufficient  cold 
to  make  it  near  blood  heat.  Have  sufficient  water  to  stir  what- 
ever grain  you  put  in,  that  the  water  and  tar  may  come  into 
contact  with  every  part  and  particle ; it  will  then  be  coated 


40 


The  Farm. 


evenly  and  is  ready  to  be  taken  out.  Shovel  it  into  a basket — 
for  economy  the  basket  may  be  placed  over  a tight  barrel  tc 
catch  the  water ; as  soon  as  it  is  done  draining,  throw  into  a 
tight  box,  where  you  can  mix  and  put  on  whatever  your  soil 
lacks.  If  wheat  or  barley,  you  need  not  fear  to  apply  lime  and 
salt.  If  oats,  corn,  or  buckwheat,  plaster  and  salt.  And  on 
the  soils  of  Yates  County  it  would  be  beneficial  to  all  of  the 
above-named  grains,  to  steep  in  strong  brine  over  night.  Every 
species  of  grass  seed  I sow  with  a heavy  coat,  and  fasten  as 
much  plaster  as  possible,  which  draws  moisture  in  a dry  season, 
and  prevents  rotting  in  an  excessively  wet  one,  and  I never  fail 
to  have  my  grass  seed  take  well.” 

4.  Common  Salt , etc. — Common  salt  or  chloride  of  sodium 
has  been  in  use  for  ages  as  a fertilizer,  and  its  great  value  can 
not  be  disputed.  As  an  ingredient  in  compost,  it  is  of  great 
service,  and  operates  with  an  influence  upon  the  soil  which  can 
be  produced  by  no  other  stimulant,  either  mineral  or  vegetable. 
As  to  top  dressing  for  grass  lands — especially  those  of  a loamy 
texture — it  is  invaluable.  Mixed  with  wood  ashes  and  lime,  in 
the  proportion  of  one  bushel  of  salt  to  three  of  ashes  and  five 
of  lime,  it  constitutes  a very  energetic  manure  for  Indian  corn 
— producing  an  early  and  vigorous  germination  of  the  seed,  and 
acting  as  an  efficient  protection  against  the  ravages  of  the  vari- 
ous insectivorous  enemies  by  which  the  young  plants  are  too 
frequently  infested  and  destroyed. 

A very  useful  and  energetic  mixture  is  made  by  the  following 
simple  process : 

“ Take  three  bushels  of  unslaked  lime,  dissolve  a bushel  of 
salt  in  as  little  water  as  will  dissolve  it,  and  slake  the  lime  with 
it.  If  the  lime  will  not  take  up  all  the  brine  at  once — which  it 
will  if  good  and  fresh  burned — turn  it  over  and  let  it  lie  a day 
and  add  a little  more  of  the  brine ; and  so  continue  to  do  till  it 
is  all  taken  up.” 

This  mixture  will  supply  plants  with  chlorine,  lime,  and  soda, 
all  of  which  are  essential ; destroy  the  odor  of  putrefying  animal 
matters,  while  it  retains  the  ammonia,  and  promotes  the  de* 


Manures. 


41 


composition  of  vegetable  and  animal  matters  in  the  soil  or 
compost  heap  to  which  it  may  be  applied.  The  farmer  should 
keep  a quantity  of  this  mixture  constantly  on  hand. 

Brine  which  has  been  used  for  salting  meat  or  fish  is  still 
more  valuable  than  that  newly  made,  as  it  contains  a portion 
o * blood  and  other  animal  matter. 

Whenever  refuse  nitrate  of  potash — that  is,  common  salt- 
peter— or  refuse  liquid  in  which  it  has  been  dissolved  for 
pickling  meat,  can  be  procured,  it  should  be  carefully  preserved 
and  mixed  into  a compost  heap. 

There  are  various  other  salts  which  are  valuable  as  manures, 
but  the  high  price  at  which  they  are  sold  precludes  their  use 
in  ordinary  cases. 

5.  Ashes. — Ashes,  as  we  have  seen,  compose  the  entire  inor- 
ganic parts  of  plants.  Returned  to  the  soil,  they  may  again  be 
taken  up  by  the  growing  vegetation.  Their  great  usefulness 
as  a manure  is  evident  and  undisputed.  The  ashes  from  differ- 
ent trees  differ  materially  in  composition  and  value  ; but  all  are 
highly  useful  applications  to  every  kind  of  soil  and  crop. 
Johnston  gives  the  composition  of  the  ash  from  oak  and  beech 
as  follows : 


PER-CENTAGE  OP 

Oak. 

Beech. 

Potash 

8.43 

15.83 

Soda 

5.64 

2.79 

Common  salt 

0.02 

0.23 

Lime 

Sulphate  of  lime 

74.63 

1.98 

62.37 

2.31 

Magnesia 

4.49 

11.29 

Oxyd  of  iron  

0.57 

0.79 

Phosphoric  acid 

3.46 

3.07 

Silica 

0.78 

1.32 

100.00 

100.00 

“Ashes,”  Allen  observes,  “are  to  the  earthy  part  of  vege- 
tables what  milk  is  to  the  animal  system,  or  barn-yard  ma- 
nures to  the  entire  crop ; they  contain  every  element,  and 
generally  in  the  right  proportions,  to  insure  a full  and  rapid 
growth.” 

Leached  ashes  have  lost  some  of  their  value,  being  deprived 


42  The  Farm. 

of  the  greater  portion  of  their  potash  and  soda,  hut  are  still 
very  useful  as  manures. 

Coal  ashes  are  less  valuable  than  wood  ashes,  but  are  by  no 
means  to  be  neglected  by  the  farmer. 

Soot  is  exceedingly  valuable  as  a manure,  and  the  small 
quantity  produced  should  be  carefully  saved. 

IV.— MANAGEMENT  OF  MANUPwES. 

Great  skill  and  care  are  requisite  in  the  management  of 
manures,  in  order  to  preserve  them  from  waste  and  secure  their 
greatest  efficiency.  Some  hints  on  this  point  have  already  been 
dropped  in  speaking  of  the  different  kinds  of  manure.  We 
have  room  for  only  a few  additional  suggestions. 

1.  Fermentation. — The  comparative  advantages  of  using  fer- 
mented and  unfermented  manure  is  still  under  discussion  among 
scientific  agriculturists ; but  that  great  loss  takes  place  when 
manure  ferments  uncovered  by  some  absorbent  of  the  fertilizing 
gases  is  clear  to  every  observer  and  thinker.  See  to  it,  then, 
that  all  fermenting  manure  is  covered  with  turf,  muck,  charcoal 
dust,  saw-dust,  or  plaster,  to  take  up  and  retain  the  ammoniacal 
gases  as  they  arise. 

2.  Digging  over  Manures. — The  frequent  digging  over  of 
barn-yard  manure,  practiced  by  some  farmers,  while  it  promotes 
decomposition,  also  leads  to  great  waste. 

3.  Hauling  Manure  in  Winter. — The  opinion  is  now  gaining 
ground  that  when  it  can  be  conveniently  done,  the  best  way  to 
secure  to  the  land  the  greatest  possible  benefit  from  stable  and 
barn-yard  manure  is  to  draw  them  at  once,  so  fast  as  they  are 
produced,  to  the  fields  where  they  are  to  be  used,  and  either 
spread  them  at  once  or  deposit  them  in  heaps  so  small  that  no 
putrefactive  fermentation  will  take  place.  In  many  cases,  ma- 
nures may  be  hauled  in  the  winter  with  great  economy,  as  the 
labor  of  the  teams  and  hands  is  in  less  demand  elsewhere.  A 
correspondent  of  one  of  our  agricultural  journals,  who  hauled 
and  spread  a part  of  his  manure  in  the  winter  and  a part  imme- 
diately before  planting,  in  May,  says : 


Manures. 


43 


“Where  the  manure  was  applied  in  the  winter,  the  corn 
started  earlier  and  continued  ahead  through  the  season ; it  also 
yielded  the  heaviest  growth  and  the  largest , soundest  ears . I 
have  followed  this  plan  at  different  times,  and  have  always  been 
pleased  with  the  result.  In  hot  weather,  I plow  the  manure 
under  immediately  after  spreading.” 

4.  A Caution. — Never  mix  quiclc-lime  with  any  animal 
manure , as  it  will  cause  the  escape  of  ammonia  and  greatly 
deteriorate  the  manure. 

5.  Burying  Manure. — Here  again  doctors  disagree.  Some 
advocate  burying  manure  very  deeply,  others  slightly,  and  still 
others  would  leave  it  upon  the  surface.  The  best  general  rule, 
we  believe,  is  to  mix  it  so  thoroughly  as  possible  with  every 
part  of  the  soil.  The  roots  will  then  be  sure  to  find  it.  A few 
crops — onions  and  some  of  the  grasses,  for  instance — must  find 
their  nutriment  near  the  surface,  as  the  roots  do  not  extend 
deeply ; for  these  a top  dressing  may  be  best. 

6.  Importance  of  Texture. — J.  J.  Thomas,  in  an  excellent 
article  on  the  “ Effective  Action  of  Manures,”  says : 

“Far  more  important  than  the  mere  presence  of  fertilizing 
ingredients,  or  even  the  chemical  condition  of  those  ingredients, 
in  many  cases,  is  their  mechanical  texture  and  degree  of  pulver- 
ization. We  have  elsewhere  given  an  instance,  furnished  by 
one  of  the  most  eminent  scientific  and  practical  cultivators  of 
our  country,  where  the  complete  crushing  of  the  clods  of  an 
adhesive  soil,  and  the  grinding  together  with  them  into  powder 
the  manure  applied  to  the  land,  produced  an  effect  upon  the 
subsequent  cvo^five  times  as  great  as  the  ordinary  operation  of 
manure.  How  absurd  it  must  be  to  make  strict  calculations  on 
the  result  of  a given  quantity  of  yard  manure,  without  ever 
inquiring  into  the  mode  of  application — whether,  on  the  one 
hand,  by  spreading  in  large,  unbroken  lumps,  carelessly  and 
imperfectly  plowed  under,  and  in  a condition  wholly  useless  for 
plants,  or  even  detrimental  in  case  of  drouth — or,  on  the  other, 
by  a thorough  harrowing  of  the  soil  and  manure  together, 
before  turning  under  and  a repetition  of  the  operation  when 


4 4 


The  Faem. 


necessary  afterward  for  complete  intermixture.  We  have 
known  the  most  admirable  results  by  this  practice,  where 
nothing  but  fresh,  coarse  manure  could  be  obtained  for  succulent 
garden  crops,  and  nearly  a total  failure  under  like  circumstances 
without  its  performance.  Even  the  time  of  year  that  manure 
has  been  carted  on  the  land,  has  sometimes  had  an  injurious 
bearing  on  the  success  of  its  application,  simply  by  the  packing 
and  hardening  resulting  from  traveling  over  its  surface  when 
in  a wet  and  adhesive  condition.  It  is  a perfectly  self-evident 
truth,  that  a mixfcire  of  unburned  bricks  and  clods  of  manure, 
would  afford  immeasurably  less  sustenance  to  the  fine  and 
delicate  fibers  of  growing  plants,  than  the  same  mixture  ground 
down  together  It. to  a fine  powder.  Hence  it  may  be  reasonably 
believed  that  the  general  introduction  and  free  use  of  pulver- 
izers, as  the  most  effective  harrows,  clod-crushers,  and  subsoilers, 
assisted  by  tile-draining,  may  be  of  greater  benefit  to  the  whole 
country  than  the  importation  of  a million  tons  of  guano.” 

V.— COMPOSTS. 

Composts  of  various  kinds  have  already  been  recommended 
and  described ; but  a few  words  more : 

Let  nothing  that  is  capable,  when  decomposed,  of  furnishing 
nutriment  to  your  growing  crops  be  permitted  to  go  to  waste 
about  your  premises.  A compost  heap  should  be  at  hand  to 
receive  all  decomposed  refuse.  The  best  basis  for  this  heap 
is  well-dried  swam  p muck ; but  where  this  is  not  readily  ob- 
tained, procure  rich  turf  scraping  from  the  roadside,  leaves  and 
surface  soil  from  the  wood  lands  and  the  sides  of  fences,  straw, 
chips,  corncobs,  weeds,  etc.,  aiding  the  decay  of  the  coarser 
materials  by  the  addition  of  urine  or  the  lime  and  salt  mixture 
mentioned  in  a previous  section.  Let  this  be  composted  with 
any  animal  matter  found  about  the  premises,  or  in  the  vicinity : 
the  carcasses  of  all  dead  animals,  large  or  small,  offal  of  every 
kind,  woolen  rags,  bones,  old  boots,  shoes,  and  waste  leather  of 
every  description,  the  droppings  of  the  hen-roost,  soap-suds, 
salt,  brine,  all  drainings  from  the  sink  spout,  slops  from  the 


Manures. 


45 


chambers,  and  cleanings  from  the  privy  : let  all  go  to  the  com- 
post heap.  And  whatever  will  not  decay  there,  with  sufficient 
rapidity,  without  assistance,  aid  its  decay  by  the  addition  of 
such  substances  as  will  facilitate  the  object.  Bones,  leather, 
etc.,  may  be  softened  so  as  to  pulverize  readi'y,  by  being  packed 
in  ashes  and  kept  moist  a few  months ; and  if  the  whole  be 
sufficiently  covered  with  muck  during  the  process,  there  will  be 
no  loss  of  any  element ; or  they  may  be  packed  in  an  old  cask 
in  a strong  solution  of  potash,  or  may  be  prepared  with  sulphur- 
ic acid  in  the  most  scientific  manner,  and  when  thus  prepared 
in  either  of  these  ways,  will  add  greatly  to  the  value  of  the 
compost  heap.  And  if  it  still  is  not  strong  enough,  add  wood 
ashes  to  any  extent,  from  one  to  ten  or  twelve  bushels  per  cord. 

When  thus  prepared,  our  compost  heap  should  be  carefully 
worked  over,  thoroughly  mixing  all  the  different  ingredients. 
It  may  then  be  applied  to  the  soil  in  the  same  manner  with 
that  from  the  barn-cellar,  or  in  any  other  way  desirable. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  general  compost  and  the  various 
special  compounded  manures  already  referred  to,  every  farmer 
who  has  swamp  muck  or  peat  on  his  farm  should  compost  it 
extensively  with  his  stable  manure;  for  it  is  believed,  on  the 
evidence  of  carefal  experiment,  that  two  cords  of  compost  pre- 
pared by  mixing  daily  one  cord  of  dry  muck  with  the  same 
quantity  of  the  solid  excrements  of  animals  is  fully  equal,  for  all 
practical  purposes,  to  two  cords  of  the  latter  preserved  and 
applied  without  the  muck  ; and  also  that  two  cords  of  compost, 
prepared  by  using  that  quantity  of  dry  muck,  to  absorb  all  the 
liquid  voided  by  the  same  animals,  during  the  time  required  to 
obtain  one  cord  of  solid  excrement,  to  be  equal  in  value  to  two 
cords  of  the  former  compost.  Thus  we  have  four  cords  of  equal 
value  by  this  process,  to  every  one  cord  obtained  where  the 
manure  is  thrown  out  of  doors  and  left  exposed  to  sun,  wind, 
and  rain,  and  all  the  liquid  allowed  to  run  to  waste.* 

These  are  a few  of  the  ways  in  which  your  stock  of  manures 


* W.  Gr.  Wyman,  in  Country  Gentleman- 


46 


The  Farm. 


may  be  greatly  and  cheaply  increased.  Yonr  own  experience, 
observation,  and  study  will  suggest  others. 

VI.— IRRIGATION. 

Irrigation  is  manuring  by  means  of  water.  “The  manner  of 
irrigating  must  depend  on  the  situation  of  the  surface  and  the 
supply  of  water.  Sometimes,  reservoirs  are  made  for  its  recep- 
tion from  rains  or  inundations ; and  at  others,  they  are  collected 
at  vast  expense,  from  springs  found  by  deep  excavations,  and 
led  out  by  extensive  subterraneous  ditching.  The  usual  source 
of  supply,  however,  is  from  streams  or  rivulets,  or  copious 
springs,  which  discharge  their  water  on  elevated  ground.  The 
former  are  dammed  up,  to  turn  the  water  into  ditches  or  aque- 
ducts, through  which  it  is  conducted  to  the  fields,  where  it  is 
divided  into  smaller  rills,  till  it  finally  disappears.  When  it  is 
desirable  to  bring  more  water  on  to  meadows  than  is  required 
for  saturating  the  ground,  and  its  escape  to  fields  below  is  to  be 
avoided,  other  ditches  should  be  made  on  the  lower  sides,  to 
arrest  and  convey  away  the  surplus  water.” 

Irrigation  contributes  to  the  growth  of  plants  in  several  ways. 

1.  It  causes  the  deposit  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  of  more  or 
less  fertilizing  matter  brought  from  a distance  by  the  stream ; 

2.  It  brings  the  gases — oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbonic  acid,  to 
the  roots  of  plants  in  different  proportions  from  those  in  which 
they  exist  in  the  air  (but  if  the  water  be  permitted  to  remain 
stagnant  on  the  surface  this  effect  ceases) ; 3.  It  disposes  the 
soil  to  those  changes,  both  mechanical  and  chemical,  which  are 
essential  to  its  greater  fertility. 

“ The  advantages  of  irrigation  are  so  manifest  that  they  should 
never  be  neglected,  when  the  means  for  securing  them  are 
within  economical  reach.  To  determine  what  economy  in  this 
case  is,  we  have  to  estimate,  from  careful  experiment,  the  equiv- 
alent needed  in  annual  dressing  with  manures  to  produce  the 
same  amount  of  grass  as  would  be  gained  by  irrigation ; and  to 
offset  the  cost  of  the  manure,  we  must  reckon  the  interest  on 
the  permanent  fixtures  of  the  dam  and  sluices,  etc. 


Manures 


47 


“ The  increase  from  the  application  of  water  is  sometimes 
fourfold,  when  the  soil,  the  season,  and  the  water  are  all  favor- 
able, and  it  is  seldom  less  than  doubled.  Many  fields  which, 
in  their  natural  condition,  scarcely  yield  a bite  of  grass  for 
cattle,  when  thoroughly  irrigated  will  give  a good  growth  for 
years,  and  without  the  aid  of  any  manures. 

“ Light,  porous  soils,  and  particularly  gravels  and  sands,  are 
the  most  benefited  by  irrigation.  Tenacious  and  clay  soils  are 
but  slightly  improved  by  it  unless  first  made  porous  by  under- 
draining. It  is  not  only  important  that  water  be  brought  on 
to  the  ground,  but  it  is  almost  equally  important  that  it  should 
pass  off  immediately  after  accomplishing  the  objects  sought.”* 


* R.  L.  Allen,  in  the  “American  Farm  Book.” 


48 


The  Farm. 


III. 

ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

If  manuring  Is  the  steam-engine  which  propolB  the  vessel,  rotation  is  the  rudder  which  gufitea 
S3  to  Its  progress.— J.  J.  Thomas. 

I.— THEORY  OF  ROTATION. 


HE  following  statements  and  illustrations  of 
the  principles  on  which  rotation  in  cropping 
has  its  foundation,  are  condensed  from  Pro- 
fessor Horton’s  “ Elements  of  Scientific 
Agriculture.” 

“ Suppose  the  farmer  to  have  a soil  which  requires, 
0 as  almost  all  soils  do,  the  application  of  manure  to 
render  it  fertile.  He  adds  a good  coating  of  manure,  and  then 
takes  off  a crop  of  corn  or  wheat.  This  crop  will  carry  away 
the  largest  part  of  the  phosphates  that  were  added  in  the 
manure.  In  most  cases,  therefore,  a second  crop  of  the  same 
kind  would  not  be  so  good  as  the  first ; and  the  third  would  be 
still  less.  There  yet  remains,  however,  from  the  manure, 
considerable  quantities  of  other  substances,  which  the  grain 
crops  did  not  so  particularly  require,  such  as  potash  and  soda. 
With  this  a good  crop  of  potatoes,  turnips,  or  beets  may  be 
obtained;  and  after  this  there  is  probably  still  enough  lime, 
etc.,  left  to  produce  an  excellent  crop  of  hay,  if  the  ground  be 
seeded  down  with  another  crop  of  grain  of  a lighter  character 
than  Indian  corn  or  wheat. 


Rotation  of  Crops. 


49 


We  perceive,  then,  that  any  good  rotation  must  be  founded 
upon  the  principle  that  different  classes  of  crops  require  differ- 
ent proportions  of  the  various  substances  which  are  present  in 
soils,  and  in  the  numerous  fertilizers  which  are  applied  for  the 
purpose  of  enriching  them.  Thus  the  crops  may  be  made  to 
succeed  each  other  with  the  least  possible  injury  to  the  soil,  and 
with  the  greatest  economy  in  the  use  of  manures. 

It  would  be  useless  to  recommend  here  any  particular  sys- 
tem of  rotation  as  best;  for  that  must  be  determined  by  experi- 
ence in  each  section  of  country,  under  the  various  circum- 
stances of  climate,  location,  and  value  of  crops.  Attention 
may,  however,  be  again  called  to  the  fact  that  there  are  several 
distinct  classes  of  crops,  considered  with  reference  to  the  sub- 
stances which  they  take  from  the  soil,  and  that  these  classes  of 
crops  should  bear  a part  in  every  system  of  rotation.  The 
principal  of  these  are  grain  crops,  root  crops,  and  grass  crops. 
See  table  and  remarks  in  section  11  of  the  previous  chapter. 

II.— BENEFITS  OF  ROTATION. 

J.  J.  Thomas,  in  speaking  of  rotation  in  cropping,  says : 
u There  are  other  very  important  requisites  in  good  farming, 
but  they  are  all  accomplished  with  an  increase  of  expenditure 
and  labor.  Manuring,  for  example,  is  a most  powerful  means 
for  improvement ; but  both  manures  and  their  application  are 
expensive  in  proportion  to  the  amount  applied.  Underdrain- 
ing  has  wrought  wonderful  results,  but  the  cost  is  always  a 
large  item,  and  the  same  may  be  said  in  some  degree  of  deep 
plowing  and  subsoiling.  But  in  the  arrangement  of  a rotation, 
no  additional  expenditure  or  labor  is  necessary ; it  costs  no  more 
to  cultivate  crops  which  are  made  to  succeed  each  other 
judiciously,  than  to  cultivate  those  arranged  in  the  worst  man- 
ner possible.  The  former  may  bring  triple  the  successful  results 
of  the  latter — not  by  the  expenditure  of  five  hundred  extra 
days  in  drawing  manure,  or  five  hundred  dollars’  worth  of  ditch- 
ing, but  simply  by  making  a proper  use  of  one’s  brains. 

u It  seems  surprising,  under  the  circumstances,  that  so  small 
3 


50 


The  Farm. 


a number  seize  the  golden  prize  thus  completely  placed  within 
their  reach — that  there  are  so  few,  even  of  those  reckoned  good 
farmers,  who  pursue  anything  like  a systematic  succession,  to 
say  nothing  of  such  a rotation  that  shall  accomplish  its  pecu- 
liarly beneficial  results,  namely,  preservation  of  the  riches  of 
the  soil,  destruction  of  weeds,  destruction  of  insects,  and  the 
most  advantageous  consumption  by  each  successive  crop  of  all 
the  means  for  its  growth  within  reach.  As  a consequence  of 
this  neglect,  we  see  land  overcropped  with  wheat,  the  soil 
worn  out  for  this  particular  grain,  and  those  troublesome  weeds, 
chess  and  red-root,  taking  its  place.  We  see  pastures,  left  un- 
plowed for  a long  series  of  years,  become  filled  with  u butter- 
cups” and  ox-eye  daisy.  A disproportion  of  spring  crops  facili- 
tates the  spread  of  wild  mustard,  and  among  insects,  grubs  and 
wire  worms  increase  according  to  the  cultivation  that  favors 
their  labors.  It  appears  to  be  but  little  understood  how  great 
is  the  assistance  to  clean  cultivation  afforded  by  a good  rotation. 
The  best  example  of  this  sort  we  ever  witnessed,  where  every 
field  of  the  symmetrically  laid-out  farm,  except  a wet  meadow, 
was  brought  under  a regular,  unvarying  system,  scarcely  a 
weed  was  ever  to  be  seen ; and  we  ascertained  that  not  one 
third  of  the  labor  usually  expended  was  required  for  the  hand 
dressing  of  hoed  crops.” 

For  something  more  on  this  topic,  see  chapter  on  “Farm 
Management.” 


D raining. 


IV. 

DRAINING. 


If  one  of  out  railroads  should  be  known  to  pay  thirty  per  cent,  dividend  annually,  from  Ita  re®, 
elar  earnings,  and  the  stock  could  be  bought  at  par,  what  a furious  rush  would  be  made  for  it 
Yet  there  is  a way  that  farmers  may  invest  in  stocks  at  home,  on  their  own  lands,  that  will  pay 
thirty  to  fifty  per  cent,  yearly.  This  is  in  systematic  tUe-draining.  We  have  known  many  whc 
have  tried  it,  and  they  generally  say  that  it  is  paid  for  by  the  increased  crops  in  two  years. 
They  are  good  farmers,  however.— Annual  Register  of  Rural  Affairs. 

There  is  not  one  farm  out  of  every  seventy-five  in  this  State  but  needs  draining — yes,  much 
draining— to  bring  it  into  high  cultivation. — Com.  Report  to  N.  T.  Rtate  Ag.  Soc. 

I.— EFFECTS  OF  DKAINING. 


OME  of  the  unfavorable  effects  of  an  excess 
of  moisture  in  a soil  have  already  been  ad- 
verted to,  and  the  proper  remedy — thorough 
drainage — pointed  out.  Thorough  drainage  implies 

covered  drains,  and  it  is  to  the  advantages  of  these 
mainly  that  we  now  desire  to  call  the  reader’s  atten- 
tion; although,  as  we  have  said  in  a previous  chapter,  open 
ditches  and  water-furrows  are  very  useful  in  certain  situations. 

The  rain  which  falls  upon  a piece  of  land  prepared  with  prop- 
erly constructed  covered  drains  never  remains  to  stagnate  or  to 
run  over  the  surface,  washing  off  the  best  of  the  soil,  but  sinks 
gradually  down,  yielding  to  the  roots  of  plants  any  fertilizing 
matter  which  it  may  contain,  and  often  washing  out  some 
hurtful  substances.  As  it  descends,  air  and  consequently  warmth 


52 


The  Farm. 


follow  it.  Under  these  new  influences  the  proper  decorapo 
sitions  and  preparations  of  compounds  fit  for  the  sustenance  ot 
plants  go  on,  the  soil  is  warm  and  sufficiently  dry,  and  plants 
flourish  which  formerly  would  never  grow  on  it  in  perfection, 
if  at  all.  It  is  a curious  fact,  too,  that  such  soils  resist  drouth 
better  than  ever  before.  The  reason  is,  that  the  plants  are  able 
' o send  their  roots  much  farther  down  in  search  of  food  with- 
out finding  anything  hurtful.  Every  part  being  penetrated  by 
the  air,  and  consequently  dryer  and  lighter,  these  soils  do  not 
bake  in  summer,  but  remain  mellow  and  porous.  Such  effects 
can  not,  in  their  full  extent,  be  looked  for  in  a stiff  clay 
in  a single  season ; the  change  must  be  gradual,  but  it  is 
sure.* 

The  principal  benefits  of  a system  of  covered  drains  are  sue 
cinctly  and  clearly  stated  in  the  following — 

“ten  reasons  for  underdraining. 

“1.  It  prevents  water  which  falls  from  resting  on  or  near 
the  surface,  and  renders  the  soil  dry  enough  to  be  worked  or 
plowed  at  all  times. 

u 2.  By  rendering  the  soil  porous  or  spongy,  it  takes  in  water 
without  flooding  in  time  of  rain,  and  gives  it  off*  again  gradually 
in  time  of  drouth. 

“3.  By  preventing  adhesion  and  assisting  pulverization,  it 
allows  the  roots  to  pass  freely  through  all  parts  of  the  soil. 

“4.  By  facilitating  the  mixture  of  manure  through  the  pul- 
verized portions,  it  greatly  increases  its  value  and  effect. 

“ 5.  It  allows  water  falling  on  the  surface  to  pass  downward, 
carrying  with  it  any  fertilizing  substances  (as  carbonic  acid  and 
ammonia),  until  they  are  arrested  by  the  absorption  of  the  soil, 

“ 6.  It  abstracts  in  a similar  manner  the  heat  contained  in 
falling  rains,  thus  warming  the  soil,  the  water  discharged  by 
drain-mouths  being  many  degrees  colder  than  ordinary  rains. 

u 7.  The  increased  porosity  of  the  soil  renders  it  a more  per 


* Norton’s  “ Elements  of  Agriculture.3 


Draining.  53 

feet  non-conductor  of  heat,  and  the  roots  of  plants  are  less 
injured  by  freezing  in  winter. 

“ 8.  The  same  cause  admits  the  entrance  of  air,  facilitating 
the  decomposition  of  enriching  portions  of  the  soil. 

“ 9.  By  admitting  early  plowing,  crops  may  be  sown  early, 
and  an  increased  amount  reaped  in  consequence. 

“ 10.  It  economizes  labor,  by  allowing  the  work  to  go  on  at 
all  times  without  interruption  from  surplus  water  in  spring, 
or  from  a hard-baked  soil  in  summer.”* 

II.— CONDITION 9 REQUIRING  DRAINAGE. 

The  conditions  from  which  arise  the  principal  causes  of  mis- 
chief to  undrained  land  are  thus  stated  by  Munn  in  “The 
Practical  Land-Drainer 

“ 1.  Where  water  has  accumulated  beneath  the  surface  and 
originated  springs. 

“2.  Where,  from  the  close  nature  of  the  substrata,  it  can 
not  pass  freely  downward,  but  accumulates  and  forms  its  level, 
or  water-line,  at  a short  distance  below  the  surface ; and 

“3.  Where,  from  the  clayey  or  close  texture  of  the  soil,  it 
lies  on  the  surface  and  becomes  stagnant.” 

Farmers  are  apt  to  consider  land  in  which  the  second  condi- 
tion mentioned  exists,  to  be  too  dry  to  need  draining,  yet  it  is 
cold  and  sour,  late  in  spring,  apt  to  bake  hard  in  summer,  and 
very  liable  to  suffer  from  early  frosts  in  autumn.  There  is  no 
remedy  but  underdraining.  The  necessity  of  this  operation  in 
the  other  two  cases  named  is  obvious. 

III.— PRACTICAL  DIRECTIONS. 

1.  Preliminary. — The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  examine 
the  field  to  be  drained  and  determine  the  plan  of  drainage  best 
adapted  to  effect  the  object  in  view,  and  the  materials  which 
may  most  economically  be  used  in  constructing  the  drains. 

2.  Draining  Springy  Soils. — Where  the  wetness  to  be  rem- 
edied results  from  springs  having  their  source  in  higher  grounds 


* “Annual  Register  of  Rural  Affairs. : 


54: 


The  Farm. 


above  the  field  to  be  drained,  the  desired  result  is  generally 
attained  by  making  one  or  more  drains  across  the  declivity 
about  where  the  low  grounds  of  the  valley  begin  to  form,  thus 
intercepting  or  cutting  off  the  springs.  These  transverse 
drains  must  be  connected  with  others,  made  for  the  purpose 
of  conveying  the  water  collected  in  them  into  some  brook, 
ravine,  or  other  outlet  which  may  be  near. 

3.  Direction  of  Drains. — In  cases  characterized  by  either  of 
the  other  conditions  specified  in  the  previous  section,  parallel 
drains  should  be  cut  directly  up  and  down  the  inclination  of 
the  field , and  emptying  into  a main  cross  drain  at  the  lower 
side. 

4.  Depth  and  Distance  Apart. — In  reference  to  depth  and 
distance  apart,  differences  of  opinion  and  of  practice  prevail. 
Some  cut  their  drains  only  about  two  and  a half  feet  deep  and 
from  twelve  to  twenty  feet  apart,  while  others  make  them  from 
three  and  a half  to  five  feet  deep  and  from  thirty  to  fifty  feet 
apart.  The  experience  of  seme  of  the  most  extensive  drainers 
both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe  seems  to  indicate,  however, 
that  for  very  heavy,  clayey  soils,  from  two  and  a half  to  three 
feet  in  depth  and  from  twelve  to  thirty  feet  apart,  generally 
produce  the  most  satisfactory  results.  More  porous  and  friable 
soils  may  be  successfully  drained  at  greater  depth  and  distance. 

5.  Digging. — Having  marked  out  your  drains  at  the  distance 
apart  decided  upon,  and  got  your  tiles  or  other  materials  ready 
for  laying  down  the  ducts,  you  may  begin  to  dig,  commencing 
at  the  lower  end,  cutting  the  main  drain  into  which  the  others 
are  to  empty,  and  then  working  upward  on  the  parallel  drains. 
Their  dimensions  must  depend  mainly  upon  the  material  to  be 
used  for  the  ducts.  Where  they  are  to  be  filled  with  broken 
stone  or  brush,  they  are  made  wider  than  where  the  small,  ova] 
tile,  tube,  or  pipe  is  to  be  laid.  Where  tiles  of  any  kind  are 
to  be  used,  their  size  must  determine  the  width  of  the  bottom 
of  the  drain.  The  top  must  be  wider  for  convenience  of  dig- 
ging. A narrow  spade  and  a peculiar  hoe  are  necessary  for 
digging  and  smoothing  the  bottom  of  the  drain.  There  must 


Draining. 


55 


be  a gradual  fall,  of  course,  from  end  to  end,  of  which  the 
regular  flow  of  water  will  he  a test.  For  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing a uniform  grade  of  descent  in  cutting  drains,  a common 
mason’s  level  will  answer ; but  the  A or  span  level,  represented 
by  the  accompanying  cut,  is 
better.  Such  a level  may 
easily  be  constructed  of 
wood.  The  span  should  be 
either  sixteen  feet  six  inches, 
or  half  that  length.  The 
two  feet  being  placed  on  a 
perfectly  level  floor,  the 
plumb-line  will  hang  in  the  center,  where  a notch  should  be 
cut  in  the  cross-bar.  Then  place  a block  of  wood,  exactly  an 
inch  thick,  under  one  leg,  and  mark  the  place  on  the  cross-bar 
that  the  plumb-line  touches.  Put  a second  block  of  one  inch 
under  the  same  leg,  and  mark  the  place  of  contact  of  the  line 
with  the  bar  as  before,  and  so  on  so  far  as  is  necessary.  Then 
mark  the  other  side  in  the  same  way.  When  thus  prepared, 
if  the  span  of  the  level  be  sixteen  feet  and  six  inches,  the 
plumb-line  will  indicate  upon  the  bar,  by  the  number  of  spaces 
at  which  it  hangs  from  the  center,  the  number  of  inches  per 
rod  of  the  descent.  If  its  span  be  eight  feet  and  three  inches- 
it  will,  in  the  same  way,  indicate  the  number  of  inches  of 
descent  in  half  a rod.* 

6.  Materials  and  Construction . — The  ditch  thus  excavated 
must  now  be  furnished  with  a permanent  duct  through  which 
water  may  at  all  times  freely  pass  off.  This  may  be  constructed 
of  various  substances — brushwood,  straw,  turf,  clinkers  from 
furnaces,  wood,  brick,  stone,  and  tiles  of  burned  clay.  Of 
these,  stone  and  tiles  in  their  various  forms,  when  they  can  be 
procured,  are  the  only  materials  which  we  can  unconditionally 
recommend. 

Brushwood  Drams . — Where  no  better  materials  are  avaii- 


* Munn. 


56 


The  Farm. 


able  these  will  be  found,  while  they  last,  quite  effective ; and 
they  are  far  more  permanent  than  might  be  supposed.  An 
instance  is  recorded  where  they  have  been  found  after  twenty 
years  in  as  good  condition  apparently  as  when  constructed. 
They  are  formed  by  laying  down  branches  or  brushwood  in 
the  bottom  of  the  drain  to  form  the  duct  for  the  passage  of  the 
water.  The  brush  are  put  into  the  cutting  in  a slanting  direc- 
tion with  the  descent  of  the  ground,  their  root  or  large  ends 
being  toward  the  bottom.  They  should  be  trodden  down  and 
covered  with  inverted  turf  before  filling  in. 

Stone  Drains . — In  reference  to  their  mode  of  construction, 
stone  drains  are  of  various  kinds.  The  simplest  form  is  that 
in  which  the  ditch  or  cutting  is  filled,  to  the  depth  of  nine  or 
ten  inches,  with  small  stones,  covered  with  inverted  turf,  shav- 
ings, or  something 
of  the  kind.  The 
stones  should  be 
about  the  size  of  a 
hen’s  egg.  Where 
larger  ones  are 
used,  the  earth  is 
apt  to  fall  into  the 
cavities,  or  mice  or 
rats  make  their 
burrows  there,  and 
the  d^ain  becomes 
choked.  Some, 
however,  make  use 
the  stone  screen.  0f  iarger  stones, 

merely  covering  them  with  a layer  of  small  stones  or  gravel, 
before  putting  on  the  sod.  When  the  stones  are  procured, 
whether  in  a natural  state  or  broken,  it  is  desirable  to  screen 
them  in  order  to  get  them  assorted  as  to  size.  The  accompany- 
ing cut  represents  an  excellent  portable  harp  oi*  screen  for  that 
purpose.  Having  filled  the  ditch  to  the  required  depth,  and 
covered  the  surface  carefully  with  inverted  sods,  the  earth 


Draining. 


57 


Fig.  1. 


should  be  thrown  in  and  trampled  hard  upon  them.  The  water 
should  find  its  way  into 
the  drain  from  the  sides , 
and  not  from  the  top. 

The  accompanying  cuts 
represent  other  forms  of 
stone  drains,  in  which 
flat  stones  are  used  to 
form  a regular  and  con* 
tinuous  duct.  A drain 
well  constructed  in  either  of  these  forms  may  be  considered 
permanent.  Where  t h e ^ 
earth  is  hard  and  the  quan- 
tity of  water  is  not  large,  the 
form  represented  by  Fig.  4 is 
the  best  and  cheapest  in 
which  a stone  drain  can  be 
constructed.  In  making 

Fig-  3.  stone  drains  in  swampy  or 
very  soft  ground  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  lay  a plank  oi 
slab  on  the  bottom,  before  putting  in  the  stones,  to  prevent 
them  from  sinking  before  the  soil  shall  become  dry  enough  to 
be  firm. 

But  in  large  portions  of  the  country  stones  can  not  be  pro- 
cured, and  where  they  can  be  had,  and  require  to  be  broken  and 
screened,  the  expense  is  considerable ; and  it  is  now  found  that, 
in  many  cases,  tiles  made  of  clay  and  burned  are  much  cheaper. 

Tile  Brains. — The  first  form  of  tile  drain  used  was  arched 
and  made  to  rest  on  a sole  or  flat  tile  laid 
* under  it ; but  the  more  modern  tile  pipes 
Fig-  5.  are  to  be  preferred,  as  they  are  smaller, 

cheaper,  and  more  easily  laid.  Those  with  an  oval  bore  (fig. 


Fig.  6.  Fig.  7. 

^T)  are  considered  better  than  those  with  a round  one. 

3* 


Th* 


58 


The  Farm. 


tiles  are,  of  course,  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  which 
must  be  smooth  and  straight.  They  are  simply  placed  end  to 
end  and  wedged  a little  with  small  stones,  if  necessary,  and 
the  earth  packed  hard  over  them.  The  water  very  readily 
finds  its  way  in  through  the  pores  of  the  material  and  at  the 
joints.  Collars  or  short  outer  tiles  are 
sometimes  used  to  go  over  the  joints,  to 
||||||i  secure  them  against  getting  displaced. 
An  inch  pipe  is  sufficient  for  most  situa- 
tions.  It  may  seem  impossible  for  the 
water  freely  to  reach  a tile  pipe  with  the 
i Bjjy  earth  packed  close  about  it,  especially 
FiS-  8.  where  the  soil  is  clayey ; but  practically 

no  difficulty  occurs.  The  portion  of  earth  next  the  drain  first 
dries ; and  as  it  shrinks  on  drying,  little  cracks  begin  to  radiate 
in  every  direction,  and  to  spread  until  they  penetrate  the  whole 
mass  of  the  soil  within  their  influence,  allowing  the  superfluous 
oisture  to  pass  off,  and  rendering  the  ground,  in  the  course 
• a season  or  two,  light,  mellow,  and  wholesome  for  plants.* 
For  main  drains  (where  the  parallel  drains  do  not  discharge 
directly  into  some  open  ditch,  ravine,  or  brook,  and  the  former 
are  not  constructed  of  stone  or  brick),  two  horse-shoe  or  arched 
tiles  may  be  used,  one  inverted  against  the  other. 

The  drains  should  be  connected  at  the  upper  end  of  the  field 
by  a small  drain  running  at  right  angles  with  them.  It  should 
be  of  the  same  depth  as  the  other  drains. 

Where  the  ground  is  firm  and  the  drain  is  made  in  the  sum- 
mer, and  when  the  length  is  not  great,  begin  at  the  upper  end 
to  lay  the  tiles  or  put  in  the  stones ; but  where  the  ground  is 
liable  to  fall  down  at  the  sides,  the  safest  way  is  to  build  the 
conduit  or  duct  immediately  after  the  earth  is  taken  out  of  the 
bottom.! 

IY. — WILL  UNDERDRAINING  PAY? 

The  Genesee  Farmer  thus  answers  this  question:  This  de- 


* Norton. 


t Munn. 


Draining. 


59 


pends  on  circumstances.  If  good  naturally  underdrained  land 
can  be  obtained  in  your  neighborhood  for  from  $15  to  $20  per 
acre,  it  would  not  pay  in  all  probability  to  expend  $30  per  acre 
in  underdraining  low,  wet,  or  springy  land ; but  in  all  districts 
where  land  is  worth  $50  per  acre,  nothing  can  pay  better  than 
to  expend  from  $20  to  $30  per  acre  injudicious  underdraining. 
The  labor  of  cultivation  is  much  reduced,  while  the  produce  is 
generally  increased  one  half,  and  is  not  unfrequently  doubled ; 
and  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  increase  is  net  'profit . If 
we  get  $15  worth  of  wheat  from  one  acre  and  $20  worth  from 
the  other,  and  the  expense  of  cultivation  is  $10  in  both  cases, 
the  profit  from  the  one  is  twice  as  much  as  from  the  other. 
That  judicious  underdraining  will  increase  the  crops  one  third, 
can  not  be  doubted  by  any  one  who  has  witnessed  its  effects. 
If  it  should  double  the  crops,  as  it  often  does,  the  profit  would 
be  four-fold.” 

It  has  been  remarked,  that  “to  apply  manure  to  undrained 
land,  is  to  throw  money  away,”  an  illustration  of  which  is  fur- 
nished by  a statement  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Hew  York 
State  Agricultural  Society,  where  seven  acres  of  low,  wet  land, 
manured  annually  at  the  rate  of  25  loads  to  the  acre,  produced 
31  bushels  of  oats  per  acre ; but  after  being  thoroughly  under- 
drained at  a cost  of  about  $60  for  the  whole,  the  first  crop  of 
oats  without  manure  was  89J  bushels  per  acre. 

Gov.  Wright,  in  his  address  before  the  Wayne  County  Agri- 
cultural Society,  estimates  the  amount  of  marshy  lands  in  Indi- 
ana at  three  million  acres.  These  were  generally  avoided  by 
early  settlers  as  being  comparatively  worthless,  but  when 
drained  they  become  eminently  fertile.  He  says : “I  know  a 
farm  of  160  acres  that  was  sold  five  years  ago  for  $500,  that 
by  the  expenditure  of  less  than  $200,  in  draining  and  ditching, 
the  present  owner  refuses  now  $3,000.” 

Ho  estimates  of  the  cost  of  draining  that  we  could  give 
would  be  of  much  practical  value.  The  character  of  the  soil, 
the  cost  of  the  materials,  the  price  of  labor,  and  other  circum- 
stances, must  be  taken  into  the  account,  and  these  vary  so  much 


60 


The  Farm. 


in  different  localities  that  they  can  not  he  made  the  basis  of 
any  useful  general  estimates.  The  following  table,  showing 
the  number  of  tiles,  of  the  different  lengths  made,  which  are 
required  for  an  acre,  will  be  useful  to  those  who  may  desire  to 
purchase  just  enough  for  a particular  piece  of  ground.  We 
extract  it  from  Munn’s  “Practical  Land-Drainer:” 


DISTANCE  APART. 

12-Inch 

Tiles. 

13-Inch 

Tiles. 

14-Inch 

Tiles. 

15-Inch 

Tiles. 

2,9  4 
2,323 
1,936 
1,659 
1,452 
1,291 
1,162 
1,056 
968 

Drains  12  feet  apart  require 

ik  25  “ u 

“ 18  “ “ 

“ 21  “ “ 

u 24  44  “ 

“ 27  44  « 

* 30  “ “ 

“ 33  “ “ 

“ 36  “ “ 

3,630 

2,904 

2,420 

2,074 

1,815 

1,613 

1,452 

1,320 

1,210 

3,351 

2,681 

2,234 

1,914 

1,675 

1,480 

1,340 

1,218 

1,117 

3,111 

2,489 

2,074 

1,777 

1,556 

1,383 

1,245 

1,131 

1,037 

In  reference  to  tile-pipe  drains,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  ditch  may  be  much  narrower  than  when  stones  are  used, 
thus  making  a considerable  saving  in  the  expense  of  digging. 
The  upper  part  of  the  earth  is  taken  out  with  a common  spade, 
and  the  lower  part  with  one  made  quite  narrow  for  the  pur- 
pose, being  only  about  four  inches  wide  at  the  point. 


FENCE8. 


61 


V. 


FENCES. 

Hare  an  eye  upon  your  fences  l— Farmer's  Almanac. 

I.- REQUISITES  OF  A GOOD  FENCE. 


HE  first  essential  in  a farm  fence  is  perfect 
efficiency  as  a barrier  against  such  animals  as 
it  is  desired  to  shut  in  or  exclude.  Without 
this  quality  it  is  worse  than  useless.*  In  the 
second  place,  it  must  be  so  cheap  that  its  cost  will  not 
exceed,  to  say  the  least,  the  profit  to  be  derived  from 
U its  existence.  Thirdly,  it  must  not  require  too  frequent 
renewal.  It  is  desirable,  also,  that  it  occupy  little  space,  and 
that  it  do  not  present  an  unsightly  appearance.  The  best  fence, 
therefore,  for  any  given  place  and  time,  is  the  one  which  com- 
bines most  perfectly  all  these  qualities.  In  one  place  this  may 
be  stone  fence,  in  another  one  of  posts  and  rails,  in  a third  a 
live  hedge,  etc.  In  one  period  of  a country’s  history  it  may  be 
made  of  logs,  in  another  of  rails,  m a third  of  growing  Osage 
orange  or  holly,  and  in  a fourth  of  wire. 


II.— VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  FENCE. 

1.  Stone  Fcjice,  — AVffierever  there  is  plenty  of  stone,  and 
especially  where  loose  stones  abound,  and  must  be  removed 
before  the  land  can  be  properly  cultivated,  stone  fences  are  the 


62 


The  Farm. 


best  and  most  economical  that  can  be  constructed.  When  well 
built,  broad,  and  high,  they  are  perfectly  efficient  and  very 
permanent.  In  an  esthetic  point  of  view  they  are  far  less 
offensive  to  the  eye  of  taste  than  our  wooden  fences,  even  of 
the  least  objectionable  form.  After  a few  years,  as  we  judge 
from  the  sober  livery  of  moss  with  which  she  decks  them, 
Nature  adopts  these  structures  as  her  own,  and  they  become  a 
legitimate  portion  of  the  landscape. 

Where  stone  is  not  very  abundant,  a combination  of  stone 
and  rail  fence  is  often  economically  constructed.  A substantial 
foundation  of  stones  is  laid,  reaching  two  or  two  and  a half  feet 
above  ground,  in  which  posts  are  placed  at  proper  distances, 
with  two  or  three  bar  holes  above  the  wall,  for  the  insertion 
of  an  equal  number  of  rails,  which  for  convenience  should  be 
put  in  when  the  posts  are  set. 

2.  The  Zig-zag  or  Worm  Fence. — In  large  portions  of  our 
country,  where  there  is  a superabundance  of  timber,  and  econ- 
omy of  space  is  of  little  importance,  the  common  zig-zag  or 
worm  fence  of  the  West  and  South  is  probably  the  most  eco- 
nomical that  can  be  erected.  When  well  built,  it  is  firm  and 
durable,  but  unsightly  and  inconvenient,  occupying  a great  deal 
of  space,  harboring  vermin,  and  encouraging  the  growth  of 
weeds  and  bushes. 

3.  Post-and-Bail  Fences. — As  timber  becomes  somewhat 
more  valuable,  it  ceases  to  be  economical  to  use  it  so  lavishly 
as  the  worm  fence  requires,  and  the  post-and-rail  fence  takes 
its  place.  This  is,  in  many  respects,  the  best  of  all  the  wooden 
farm  fences. 

“ The  posts,”  Allen  says,  u should  be  placed  from  two  and  a 
half  to  three  feet  below  the  surface,  in  the  center  of  a large 
bole  and  surrounded  by  fine  stone,  which  must  be  well  pour  ded 
down  by  a heavy,  iron-shod  rammer,  as  they  are  filled  in.  The 
post  will  not  stand  so  firmly  at  first  as  if  surrounded  by  uirt, 
out  it  will  last  much  longer.  The  lower  end  should  be  pom  red, 
which  prevents  its  heaving  with  the  frost.  If  the  position  of 
the  post  while  in  the  tree  be  reversed,  or  the  upper  end  of  the 


Fences. 


63 


split  section  of  the  trunk  which  is  used  for  a post,  be  placed  in 
the  earth,  it  will  be  more  durable.  Charring  or  partially  burn 
ing*  the  part  of  the  post  which  is  buried,  will  add  to  its  dura- 
tion. So  also  will  imbedding  it  in  ashes,  lime,  charcoal,  or 
clay ; or  it  may  be  bored  at  the  surface  with  a large  auger, 
diagonally  downward  and  nearly  through,  then  filled  with  salt, 
and  closely  plugged. 

“ The  best  timber  for  posts,  in  the  order  of  its  durability,  is 
red  cedar,  yellow  locust,  white  oak  and  chestnut,  for  the 
Northern  and  Middle  States.  I recently  saw  red  cedar  posts 
in  use  for  a porch  which,  I was  assured,  had  been  standing 
exposed  to  the  weather  previous  to  the  Revolution,  a period  of 
over  70  years,  and  they  were  still  perfectly  sound.  The  avidity 
with  which  silicious  sands  and  gravel  act  upon  wood,  renders 
a post  fence  expensive  for  such  soils.”* 

In  some  cases,  boards  may  be  economically  substituted  for 
rails,  and  firmly  nailed  to  suitably  prepared  posts. 

4.  The  Sunken  Fence. — The  sunken  fence  or  wall  consists  of 
u a vertical  excavation  on  one  side,  about  five  feet  in  depth, 
against  which  a wall  is  built  to  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
opposite  side  is  inclined  at  such  an  angle  as  will  preserve  the 
sod  against  sliding,  from  the  effects  of  frost  or  rain,  and  is  then 
turfed  over.  A farm  thus  divided  presents  no  obstruction  to 
the  view,  where  it  is  everywhere  properly  walled  in,  besides 
affording  good  ditches  for  the  drainage  of  water.”  Such  a 
fence,  properly  constructed,  might  be  considered  absolutely 
permanent ; and  it  would  scarcely  need  repairing  at  all. 

5.  Iron  Fences. — Wire  and  other  forms  of  iron  fence  are 
coming  into  extensive  use  in  some  portions  of  the  country. 
Where  there  is  a deficiency  of  both  timber  and  stone,  the  wire 
fence  is  probably  the  best  and  most  economical  that  can  be 
made.  With  the  improvements  lately  introduced,  especially 
those  made  by  the  New  York  Wire  Railing  Company,  these 
fences  are  entirely  efficient,  and  in  every  way  satisfactory. 


* The  “ American  Farm  Book.” 


64 


The  Farm 


The  fences  are  made  with  horizontal  wires,  tightened  by 
means  of  an  effective  arrangement,  so  that  the  whole  tension 
of  the  rod  is  obtained . The  posts  are  furnished  with  contriv- 
ances of  different  patterns  for  security  in  the  ground.  The  size 
of  the  rods  varies  in  accordance  with  the  uses  for  which  the 
fence  is  designed.  No  ordinary  domestic  animal  will  break 
through  fences  of  considerably  less  than  i-inch  wrought  wire, 
while  still  larger  sizes  may  be  used  with  the  same  facility  if 
required.  The  bright  or  hard  wire  is  now  generally  used.* 


* We  are  indebted  for  the  accompanying  illustrations  of  wire  fences  to  tho 
Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  New  York  Wire  Railing  Company.  John  B. 
Wickersliam,  Superintendent. 

t As  it  may  be  useful  to  some  of  our  readers,  we  give  the  prices  per  rod  at 
which  this  fence  may  be  procured  (packed  and  shipped)  at  the  warehouse  of 
the  New  York  Iron  Railing  Company,  in  New  York. 


For  cattle  and  horses,  S wires,  with  iron  posts  and  screws $1  66 

“ “ f‘  4 “ *■  “ “ 1 84 

“ “ “ 5 ff  “ ‘ 2 00 

w Hogs,  sheep,  etc.  7 “ “ “ “ 2 40 

<4  Turkeys,  geese,  etc.  10  “ “ “ “ 8 00 

Each  additional  wire,  20  cents  per  rod. 


Fences. 


65 


The  accompanying  cut  exhibits  the  natural  size  of  the  wires 
most  commonly  used  for  farm  fences,  and  shows  the  manner  in 


which  they  pass  through  and  support  the  post  and  are  supported 
by  it.  The  following  are  the  manufacturer’s  directions  for 
putting  up  the  fence : 

“It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  straining  pillar,  or  start- 
ing post,  of  wood  or  iron,  at  the  extreme  ends  of  the  fence, 
should  be  perfectly  firm,  as  the  wires  can  not  otherwise  be 
made  tight.  Commencing  from  a tree  is  recommended,  if  pos- 
sible. Plant  the  posts  12  feet  apart,  hook  in  the  rails,  and  at 
the  distance  of  150  feet  place  a screw  on  each  wire.  Place  the 
next  set  of  screws  at  the  distance  of  300  feet,  and  so  continue.’ 


WIRE  NETTING  FENCE. 


The  wire  netting  fence  furnishes  an  admirable  barrier  against 
small  animals,  poultry,  etc.  It  costs  from  $1  50  to  $2  75  per 


66  The  Farm. 

rod,  according  to  the  height  and  the  size  of  the  wire  and 
meshes. 

Another  style  of  iron  farm  fence  is  called  the  “ Corrugated 
Flat  Rail  Fence.”  It  is  in  some  respects  preferable  to  the 
round  rail  or  wire,  being  visible  at  a greater  distance  and  less 
liable  to  sagging. 

6.  Hurdle  Fence . — The  hurdle,  or  light,  movable  fence  is 
formed  in  short  panels,  and  firmly  set  in  the  ground  by  sharp- 
ened stakes  at  the  end  of  each  panel,  and  these  are  fastened 
together.  This  is  a convenient  addition  to  farms  where  heavy 
green  crops  of  clover,  lucern,  peas,  or  turnips  are  required  to 
be  fed  off  in  successive  lots,  by  sheep,  swine,  or  cattle.  It  is 
variously  constructed  of  wood  or  iron,  and  is  much  less  expen- 
sive than  might  be  supposed,  “ Wickersham’s  Corrugated  Hur- 
dle Fence”  being  furnished  by  the  Wire  Railing  Company  at 
from  $2  50  to  $5  per  rod,  according  to  weight  and  quality. 


7.  Hedges . — The  live  fence,  almost  universal  in  England,  is 
still  an  experiment  here.  There  have  been  a few  successes  and 
many  failures  in  the  cultivation  of  hedges.  The  causes  of  fail- 
ure have  been  various — a wrong  choice  of  trees,  the  dryness 


F ENCES . 


67 


of  our  climate,  lack  of  experience  in  planting,  neglect  of  proper 
after  cultivation  and  pruning,  etc.  But  the  few  examples  of 
complete  success  which  may  be  pointed  out  prove  conclusively 
that,  under  proper  and  easily  attainable  conditions,  live  fences 
are  perfectly  practicable  in  this  country ; and  in  some  parts  of 
it  they  are  doubtless  economical.  When  well  kept,  they  are 
certainly  very  beautiful. 

Among  the  plants  employed  in  this  country  with  more  or  less 
success  for  hedges  are  the  buckthorn,  the  hawthorn,  the  bar- 
berry, the  althea  or  rose  of  Sharon,  the  Osage  orange,  the 
American  arbor  vitae,  the  American  holly,  the  hemlock  spruce, 
the  white  cedar,  the  evergreen  thorn  ( Cratcegus  jpyracantha ), 
the  Cherokee  rose,  and  the  white  Macartney  rose. 

For  the  Middle,  Western,  and  some  of  the  Northern  States, 
the  Osage  orange  seems  to  be,  on  the  whole,  the  best.  It  also 
succeeds  at  the  South;  but  there  the  evergreen  thorn,  the 
Cherokee  rose,  and  especially  the  single  white  Macartney  rose, 
are  preferable. 

The  soil  for  a hedge  row  must  be  deeply  plowed  or  spaded, 
and,  if  poor,  manured  a little.  The  space  thus  prepared  should 
be  at  least  two  feet  wide,  and  with  a soil  from  eighteen  inches 
to  two  feet  deep.  The  best  way  is  to  open  a trench  of  the 
required  width  and  depth,  throw  some  well-rotted  manure  in 
the  bottom,  and  then  fill  up  with  the  surface  earth.  Along  the 
middle  of  this  filled  trench  stretch  a line,  and  make  holes  under 
it  in  the  soft  earth  every  six  or  eight  inches,  with  a “ dibble” 
or  pointed  stick.  Set  your  plants  in  the  holes  precisely  as  you 
would  plant  cabbages,  pressing  the  earth  around  the  roots,  and 
leaving  only  one  inch  of  the  top  visible  above  the  surface.  The 
plants  may  be  either  one  or  two  years  old,  and  the  tops  should 
be  cut  otf  within  two  inches  of  the  root.  The  young  hedge 
must  be  well  cultivated  for  several  years,  and  cut  back  once  or 
twice  a year  till  it  shall  be  four  feet  high.  The  conical  shape 
is  best  for  a hedge,  as  it  admits  every  shoot  to  the  benefit  of 
the  air  and  light.  Where  vacancies  occur,  vigorous  shoots 
may  be  “layered” — that  is,  fastened  to  the  ground  with  hooked 


68  The  Farm. 

pegs,  when  they  will  take  root  and  send  up  sprouts  to  fill  the 
open  spaces. 

The  editor  of  the  Country  Gentleman  very  truly  says : u Not 
one  Osage  orange  hedge  in  twenty  succeeds , simply  because  it  is 
expected  to  talce  care  of  itself  after  setting  out.  Constant  cul- 
ture and  cutting  are  as  essential  as  air  and  food  to  animals.” 

Evergreens  make  the  handsomest  hedges ; and  although  less 
stout,  yet  by  shutting  out  sight  are  usually  quite  safe.  The 
Norway  fir  is  the  fastest  grower — the  hemlock  most  beautiful, 
and  the  best  of  any  for  the  shade  of  trees;  the  growth  is, 
however,  rather  slow.  It  shears  finely,  and  its  interior  is 
dense.  The  Norway  fir  also  does  well  on  these  points. 

At  the  South  we  should  choose  the  single  white  Macartney 
rose  for  general  cultivation ; although  the  Cherokee  rose,  when 
properly  treated,  the  evergreen  thorn,  the  honey  locust,  the 
jujube,  and  the  Spanish  bayonet  ( Yucca  gloriosa)  all  form  effi- 
cient and  beautiful  hedges. 

Mr.  Redmond,  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Southern  Cultivator, 
gives  the  following  directions  for  the  cultivation  of  rose  hedges ; 
and  no  one  is  better  qualified  to  speak  on  this  point : 

“ As  a general  rule,  both  the  Macartney  and  Cherokee  roses 
are  improperly  planted.  To  succeed  with  them,  it  is  necessary 
to  open  two  parallel  ditches  or  trenches  about  four  feet  apart, 
heaping  the  earth  along  the  center  in  the  form  of  a sloping 
bank.  At  the  base  of  this  bank,  on  each  side,  plant  12-inch 
cuttings  in  December  or  January,  training  the  tops  over  the 
bank  from  each  side.  Having  this  bank  as  a foundation,  they 
will  constantly  layer  themselves  and  grow  close  at  the  bottom , 
and  will  interlace  their  thorny  branches  so  intricately  that  no 
animal  can  pass  through.  The  ditch  on  each  side  forms  an 
additional  obstruction  to  the  passage  of  animals,  and  forms  a 
definite  boundary  or  limit  to  the  hedge — to  which  limit  only 
the  ends  of  the  branches  must  be  allowed  to  extend.  In  trim- 
ming, a man  passes  rapidly  along  the  bottom  of  the  ditch, 
clipping  off  even  with  the  inner  side  all  the  straggling  ends  of 
the  plants.  In  order  to  explain  this  system  of  rose  hedges 


Fences. 


69 


more  fully,  we  will  endeavor  to  give  a drawing  hereafter/  In 
the  mean  time,  let  it  be  remembered  that  the  cuttings  must 
always  be  'planted  at  the  bottom , never  at  the  top  of  the  hank 
— the  latter  situation  being  too  dry  to  make  them  grow  off 
vigorously.” 


SECTION  OF  MODEL  HEDGE. 


A.  really  good  and  perfect  hedge  should  form  a rounded 
pyramid,  similar  to  the  accompanying  cut,  branching  out 
broadly  and  close  to  the  ground,  and  tapering  up  either  sharply 
or  obtuse,  as  the  taste  of  the  cultivator  may  determine.  This 
is  a fundamental  principle  in  all  hedging,  and  unless  it  is  secured 
at  the  outset  by  proper  trimming,  it  can  never  be  done  aftei- 
ward. 

III. — A HINT  OK  TWO. 

But  let  your  fence  be  of  what  kind  it  may,  it  is  necessary,  in 
the  words  of  our  motto,  to  “ keep  an  eye”  upon  it.  Some  acci- 
dent may  cause  a breach  in  the  best  fence,  and  a fence  that  is 
not  perfectly  efficient  is  worse  than  none.  A fence,  to  accom- 
plish the  purpose  of  a fence,  must  not  only  be  able  to  “ stand 
alone,”  but  must  bear  a little  jostling.  Your  cattle  may  very 
innocently  rub  themselves  against  it.  If  it  tumble  down,  who 
can  blame  them  if  they  walk  into  the  adjoining  field,  or  into 
the  highway,  as  the  case  may  be  ? And  you  underrate  their 
sagacity  if  you  suppose  that  they  will  not  take  a hint  from  the 
accident,  and  rub  again  for  the  express  purpose  of  producing 
the  result  obtained  before  without  a purpose.  Rail  bars  are 


The  Farm. 


70 

often  slipped  out  in  this  way.  Gates  are  much  better.  “ When 
bars  are  used,  they  should  be  let  down  so  near  the  ground  that 
every  animal  can  step  over  conveniently ; nor  should  they  he 
hurried  over  so  fast  as  to  induce  any  animal  to  jump.  In 
driving  a flock  of  sheep  through  them,  the  lower  bars  ought  to 
be  taken  entirely  out,  or  they  he  allowed  to  go  over  the  bars  in 
single  file.  Animals  will  seldom  become  jumpers,  except 
through  their  owner’s  fault,  or  from  some  had  example  set 
them  by  unruly  associates ; and  unless  the  fences  be  perfectly 
secure,  such  ought  to  he  stalled  till  they  can  be  disposed  of. 
The  farmer  will  find  that  no  animal  will  repay  him  the  trouble 
and  cost  of  expensive  fences  and  ruined  crops.” 

IV.— AEE  FENCES  NECESSARY? 

The  burden  and  expense  of  fence-making  is  so  great  that 
the  question  has  very  naturally  been  raised  whether  it  would 
not  he  better,  in  an  economical  point  of  view,  to  dispense  with 
them  entirely.  It  is  said  that  the  greatest  investment  of  capital 
in  this  country  is  in  the  common  fences  which  divide  the  fields 
from  the  highway,  and  separate  them  from  each  other.  Df 
they  pay  ? 

In  France,  Belgium,  Germany,  Italy,  and  other  parts  of  Eu 
rope,  fences  are  seldom  seen.  When  cattle  or  sheep  are  pas 
tured  in  these  countries,  they  are  placed  under  the  care  of  a 
herdsman  or  shepherd,  who,  with  the  aid  of  his  sagacious  and 
well-trained  dog,  easily  keeps  a large  herd  or  flock  within  pre- 
scribed limits,  which  are  marked  by  a slight  ditch,  or  in  some 
other  simple  way.  Does  the  labor  of  the  herdsman  and  his 
dog  cost  more  than  the  fences  which  would  have  been  required 
without  him  ? In  those  countries  undoubtedly  not.  In  refer- 
ence to  the  United  States  we  have  not  the  necessary  estimates 
or  the  exact  data  on  which  to  base  them  ; but,  according  to  the 
figuies  given  in  the  following  extract  from  an  article  published 
in  the  Ohio  Farmer , it  appears  that  fences  do  not  always  pay, 
even  here,  where  labor  costs  so  much  more  than  in  Europe. 
After  mentioning  the  fact  that  the  ancients  had  no  fences,  and 


Fences.  71 

that  there  are  none  in  France,  and  declaring  them  wholly  un- 
necessary here,  the  writer  goes  on  : 

“ The  fences  in  our  State  cost  more  than  its  railroads.  How, 
this  huge  amount  of  capital  is,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  dead. 
More,  it  is  a decaying  capital ; annually  a large  amount  of  its 
depreciated  stock  must  be  replaced.  These  repairs  cost  im- 
mense sums  of  timber,  time,  and  hard  work.  But  the  evil  does 
not  stop  here : timber  is  decreasing  in  quantity  and  quality ; for 
rails,  posts,  and  stakes  require  a great  deal,  and  that  of  the  best 
kind,  while  our  vast  prairies  have  no  timber  at  all  hardly  for 
fencing. 

“ And  there  are  other  evils  connected  with  this  expensive 
and  stupid  modern  invention.  Fences  become  the  refuge  of 
vermin  and  all  manner  of  noxious  weeds.  Then,  too,  they  act 
as  natural  and  annual  distributors  of  these  weeds.  The  fence 
protects  the  weed  till  it  is  ripe,  and  then  furnishes  the  seed  to 
the  first  high  winds  of  winter  and  spring. 

“ In  addition  to  these  objections  to  fences,  we  might  mention 
that  they  occupy  a great  deal  of  ground. 

“ How,  what  are  their  advantages  ? They  keep  cattle  in  their 
proper  places,  protecting  the  farmer  against  his  own  and  other 
people’s  cattle.  But  what  need  is  there  for  anybody’s  cattle  to 
run  at  large  ? There  are  laws  now  prohibiting  some  kinds  of 
animals  from  running  abroad ; why  not  extend  it  to  all  ? It  is 
our  impression  that  it  would  be  much  more  economical  to  hire 
help  to  attend  them  in  the  field  and  in  the  stable  than  to  pay 
for  fences,  fencing,  and  waste  lands  occupied  by  fences. 

a We  will  append  a few  figures,  from  our  own  experience,  in 
order  to  present  to  the  farming  community  the  importance  of 
looking  at  this  matter.  We  claim  no  special  accuracy  for  our 
statistics,  but  they  are,  in  the  main,  correct ; and  if  they  will 
call  out  from  one  or  more  of  our  farmers  and  agricultural  pro- 
fessors the  facts  in  the  case,  as  they  exist  in  our  State,  we  shall 
feel  that  our  object  has  been  accomplished. 

“ Taking  our  own  observations  as  a guide,  these  are  the  fig- 
ures : Chestnut  rails  are  worth  six  dollars  per  hundred ; oak 


72 


The  Farm. 


stakes,  about  three  dollars  per  hundred.  It  takes  fourteen  rails 
and  four  stakes  per  rod  for  a worm  fence ; in  round  numbers, 
it  costs  one  dollar  per  rod.  This  would  be  three  hundred  and 
twenty  dollars  per  mile,  and  there  were  seven  miles  of  fence, 
making  two  thousand  two  hundred  and  forty  dollars  for  the 
fencing  material.  Now,  add  to  this  first  cost  the  price  of  haul- 
ing, of  setting  up,  or  keeping  in  repair,  of  decay,  and  of  the 
waste  of  land  occupied.  If  you  pay  for  bringing  these  rails  to 
their  proper  places  and  putting  them  up,  the  first  cost  of  mate- 
rial will  be  three  thousand  dollars.  First  cost  of  material  and 
work,  three  thousand  dollars;  interest  at  six  per  cent.,  one 
hundred  and  eighty  dollars;  annual  decay,  six  per  cent.,  one 
hundred  and  eighty  dollars;  annual  repairs,  three  per  cent., 
ninety  dollars;  loss  of  land,  five  per  cent.,  one  hundred  and 
fifty  dollars.  Annual  cost,  five  hundred  dollars. 

“Could  not  this  sum  be  better  used?” 

We  suspect  that  in  reference  to  large  portions  of  the  West, 
at  least,  the  writer’s  closing  question  may  be  answered  in  th« 
affirmative. 


Farm  Implements  and  Their  Use.  73 


VI. 

FARM  IMPLEMENTS  AND  THEIR  USE. 

’Tis  time  to  clear  your  plowshare  In  the  glebe. — Graham. 

I.— THE  PLOW. 


\ ISTORY  does  not  inform  us  when  plows  were 
first  used ; but  there  are  traces  of  them  in  the 
earliest  of  all  written  authorities — the  Bible. 
By  consulting  the  sacred  records  (Deut.  xxii.  10)  we 
find  that  in  very  early  times  they  plowed  with  two  oxen, 
and  that  their  plow  had  a coulter  and  plowshare  (Sam. 
xiii.  20) ; and  drawings  of  early  Greek  plows  show  that 
they  were  furnished  with  wheels.  The  plows  of  Borne  were 
of  the  most  simple  form.  u Nothing,”  J.  J.  Thomas  says, 
“shows  the  improvements  of  modern  agriculture  more  con- 
spicuously than  the  difference  between  the  old  and  new  plows.” 
The  u old  plow”  is  still  used  in  many  countries  where  farmers 
do  not  enjoy  the  benefit  of  agricultural  periodicals.  The  accom- 
panying cut  represents  the  plow  at  present  used  in  Morocco. 
It  would  hardly  receive  the  premium  of  the  State  Agricultural 
Society,  and  has  probably  never  been  patented.  It  may,  how- 
ever, be  made  very  cheaply,  the  point  only  being  shod  with 
iron.  In  the  less  civilized  regions  of  Morocco  the  plow  consists 
only  of  a crooked  limb  of  a tree,  with  a projecting  branch 


74 


The  Farm. 


Bharpened  to  a point  for  scratching  up  the  ground.  The  Moors 
do  not  take  the  agricultural  papers.* 


Compare  the  rude  implement  of  the  Moor  with  the  improved 
Eagle  Plow  of  bourse,  Mason  & Co.,  here  represented.  This 


THE  EAGLE  PLOW. 


is  a No.  2,  and  is  a medium-sized  two-horse  or  cattle  sod  or  stub- 
ble plow.  It  is  adapted  to  turn  sod  furrows  from  four  to  seven 
inches  deep  by  from  twelve  to  fourteen  inches  wide,  and  will  work 
somewhat  deeper  in  stubble  plowing.  It  is  rigged  with  the  lock 
coulter,  wheel,  draft-rod,  and  dial  clevis,  as  represented  by  the 
cut,  and  with  these  fixtures  is  a very  strong,  and  at  the  same 
time  light  plow  for  two  cattle  or  horses,  in  plowing  stony, 
stumpy,  or  rough,  uneven  land.  Or  it  is  rigged  with  wheel  and 
cutter,  for  flat  furrows  in  smooth  land.  There  are  other  sizes, 
both  larger  and  smaller  than  this,  and  for  general  use  no  plow 
has  given  better  satisfaction. 

An  admirable  plow  for  turning  under  sward  deeply  is  the 
Double  Michigan.  “ It  has  two  mold-boards.  The  forward  or 
small  one  skims  the  surface,  taking  off  a few  inches  of  the  top 
of  the  sod,  and  laying  it  in  the  bottom  of  the  previous  furrow ; 


* Annual  Register  of  Rural  Affairs. 


Farm  Implements  and  Their  Use.  75 


and  the  second  or  large  mold-board  turns  up  what  is  left,  and 
completely  buries  the  former.  Three  strong  horses  will  draw 
this  plow  when  of  the  smaller  size,  and  will  run  a furrow  eight 
or  nine  inches  deep ; but  the  larger  sized  plow  requires  nearly 
double  this  force,  and  will  cut  a furrow  a foot  deep. 

“ The  Michigan  plow  prepares  sod  ground  in  the  best  manner 
for  planting  corn,  the  mellow  soil  which  is  thrown  on  the  sod 
being  deep  enough  to  allow  a coat  of  manure  to  be  buried 
afterward  a few  inches  by  means  of  a gang-plow. 

“When  the  subsoil  is  of  such  a nature  as  not  to  enrich  the 
top  soil  wThen  thrown  up  and  mixed  with  it,  or  when  it  is  de- 
sirable to  loosen  up  a deep  bed  of  mellow  earth  to  serve  as  a 
reservoir  for  moisture,  the  subsoil  plow  serves  a valuable  pur- 
pose. It  is  also  useful  for  loosening  the  soil  to  allow  the  trench 
or  Michigan  plow  to  enter  more  fully  to  a greater  depth. 

“ The  subsoil  plow  merely  loosens  the  earth,  but  does  not 
turn  it  up  to  the  surface.  It  is  made  to  follow  in  the  furrow 
of  a common  plow.  It  runs  much  deeper  than  the  trench  plow, 
with  the  same  force  of  team.  Four  horses  attached  to  a strong 
plow,  running  in  a furrow  seven  inches  deep,  will  loosen  the 
earth  to  a depth  of  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches.  The  benefit  of 
subsoiling  depends  essentially  on  keeping  the  ground  well 
drained ; for  if  the  loosened  earth  is  afterward  allowed  to  be- 
come thoroughly  soaked  or  flooded  with  water,  it  soon  becomes 
compacted  together  again,  and  the  operation  proves  of  no  per- 
manent advantage.  This  is  one  fruitful  source  of  failure.”* 

The  ridging  or 
double  mold- 
board  plow  is  a 
very  useful  im- 
plement. It  is 
used  for  opening 
drills  to  plant 
potatoes,  corn,  etc. 


DOUBLE  MOLD-BOARD  PLOW. 


in  plowing  between  narrow  rows ; in  dig- 


* J.  J.  Thomas. 


76  The  Farm. 

ging  potatoes,  etc.  No  farmer  should  be  without  it.  It  is  a 
light  one-horse  plow. 

The  side-hill  or  swivel-plow  is  so  constructed  that  the  mold- 
board  is  easily  and  instantly  changed  from  one  side  to  the  other, 
which  enables  the  plowman  to  perform  the  work  horizontally 
upon  hillsides,  going  back  and  forth  on  the  same  side,  and 
turning  all  the  furrow  slices  downward.  This  prevents  the 
washing  of  the  soil  by  heavy  rains,  to  which  all  hillsides  are 
more  or  less  liable  when  plowed  up  and  down  the  slope.  Such 
a plow  should  be  considered  indispensable  at  the  South. 

II.— THE  HARROW. 

Next  to  the  plow  in  the  order  of  description,  as  well  as  of 
use,  comes  the  harrow.  Like  the  plow,  it  was  anciently  a very 


rude  implement ; and  it  is  only  quite  recently  that  it  has  reached 
the  high  degree  of  efficiency  and  facility  of  action  which  char- 


Farm  Implements  and  Their  Use.  77 


acterize  the  best  implements  of  the  present  day.  “He  must 
have  lived  to  little  purpose  who  is  content  to  use  the  clumsy, 
coarse  harrow  of  former  days.” 

One  of  the  best  of  the  improved  harrows  is  the  hinge  har- 
row represented  by  the  accompanying  cut.  This  harrow  may 
be  folded  double,  or  separated  into  two  parts,  for  the  conve- 
nience of  transportation  or  other  purpose.  Either  half  may  be 
lifted  for  any  purpose  while  the  implement  is  in  motion ; and  the 
easy  and  independent  play  of  the  parts  up  and  down  upon  the 
hinges  enables  the  instrument  to  adapt  itself  to  the  surface  of 
the  ground  in  all  places,  so  that  whether  going  through  hollows, 
or  over  knolls  or  ridges,  it  is  always  at  work,  and  every  tooth 
has  an  operation  upon  the  soil. 

The  Geddes  harrow  and  the  Hanford  harrow,  triangular  in 
shape,  are  also  excellent  implements;  and  for  light  grounds, 
free  from  stones  and  other  obstructions,  the  Scotch  or  square 
harrow  serves  its  purpose  admirably. 


The  accompanying  engraving  represents  a harrow  recently 
patented  by  Samuel  J.  Orange,  of  Grayville,  111.  It  involves 
the  rotary  principle,  the  rotation  being  produced  by  the  press- 
ure of  the  rollers  g g upon  the  wheels  A A.  It  has  the  im- 
portant advantage,  that  while  it  secures  the  rotation  of  the 
wheels,  it  at  the  same  time  avoids  side  draft. 


78 


The  Farm. 


III.— THE  CULTIVATOR 

This  is  a useful  implement  for  stirring  the  soil  and  killing 
weeds.  It  is  generally  made  to  he  drawn  by  one  horse,  and  is 
mostly  used  between  the  rows  of  corn,  potatoes,  cotton,  etc. 
It  is  made  so  as  to  expand  or  contract,  according  to  the  width 
of  the  rows.  It  saves  a great  deal  of  hard  labor ; hut  must 
not  he  allowed  to  usurp  the  place  of  the  plow  where  deep  cul- 
tivation is  required. 

IV.— THE  HORSE  HOE. 

Allied  to  the  cultivator  is  the  horse  hoe  in  its  various  forms. 
“ Knox’s  patent  has  four  teeth.  The  forward  one  is  simply  a 
coulter,  to  keep  the  implement  steady  and  in  a straightforward 
direction;  the  two  side  or  middle  teeth  are  miniature  plows, 
which  may  be  changed  from  one  side  to  the  other,  so  as  to  turn 
the  earth  from  the  rows  at  first  weeding,  when  the  plants  are 
small  and  tender,  or  toward  them  in  later  cultivation — at  the 
option  of  the  operator ; the  broad  rear  tooth  effectually  disposes 
of  grasses  and  weeds,  cutting  off  or  rooting  up  all  that  come  in  its 
way.  It  is  a thorough  pulverizer  of  the  surface,  sifting  the  earth 


HORSE  HOE  FOR  COTTON. 


and  weeds  through  its  iron  prongs  or  fingers  in  the  rear,  leaving 
the  weeds  on  the  surface  to  wilt  and  die,  and  the  ground  levei 


Farm  Implements  and  Their  Use.  79 

and  mellow.  For  hoeing  carrots,  turnips,  etc.,  where  the  rows 
are  narrow,  the  side  teeth  are  taken  out,  and  the  rear  tooth, 
with  the  forward  one  as  a director  to  guide  the  instrument,  hoes 
and  mellows  the  ground  between  the  rows  very  perfectly.” 
Our  engraving  represents  a modification  of  Knox’s  horse  hoe, 
adapting  it  particularly  to  the  cultivation  of  cotton. 

Y.-THE  FIELD  ROLLER. 

Ko  good  farmer  will  omit  this  useful  implement  from  his  list. 
It  levels  and  smooths  the  plowed  land  on  sowing  down  to 


"WOODEN  FIELD  ROLLER. 


grass,  forcing  sods  and  small  stones  into  the  soft  ground,  pul- 
verizing all  lumps  of  earth,  pressing  the  light,  loose  soil  of  the 
surface  around  the  seeds  of  grain,  grass,  etc.,  securing  a suro 
and  quick  germination  and  growth  of  the  seeds,  and  preparing 
a smooth,  even  surface  for  the  reaper,  scythe,  and  rake.  By 
making  the  earth  compact  at  the  surface,  insects  are  deprived 
of  shelter ; otherwise  the  sods,  loose  stones,  and  lumps  of  earth 
afford  them  convenient  habitations.  In  spring  there  is  fre- 
quently great  advantage  in  rolling  lands  recently  sowed  to  grain 
and  grass,  as  the  earth  that  has  been  raised  by  the  frost,  exposing 
the  roots  of  plants,  is  replaced  by  the  operation,  with  benefit  to 
the  growing  crop.  The  roller  is  particularly  beneficial  on  light 
lands,  of  soil  too  loose  and  porous  to  retain  moisture  and  pro- 


80 


The  Farm. 


tect  the  manure  from  the  effects  of  drying  winds  and  a scorch 
ing  sun,  and  too  light  too  allow  the  roots  of  plants  a firm  hold 
in  the  earth ; for  on  such  lands  its  compressing  effect,  especially 
in  dry  seasons,  very  much  increases  the  product  of  crop  as  well 
as  preserves  the  manure  from  undue  evaporation,  thus  saving  a 
greater  portion  of  its  fertilizing  properties  for  the  benefit  of  the 
land  and  succeeding  crops. 


YI.— SEED  SOWERS. 


Every  farmer  or  gardener  needs  a seed-sower  of  some  sort ; 

but  one  of  the  small- 
est and  simplest  of 
the  many  kinds  man- 
ufactured will  serve 
the  purpose  of  the 
majority  of  agricul- 
turists. The  light 
hand-drill  represent- 
ed by  the  accom- 
a small  hand-drill.  panying  cut  will  be 

found  entirely  satisfactory  where  the  work  to  be  performed  by 
such  an  implement 
is  limited.  The 
seed  sower  repre- 
sented by  the  next 
engraving  is  larger, 
and  rather  more  ef- 
fective, but  still 
light  and  cheap. 

With  proper  care, 
either  of  these  little  seed-sower. 

implements  will  do  the  work  required  of  them,  in  garden  and 
field,  for  many  years,  without  requiring  renewal  or  repair. 


VII. — THE  HORSE  RAKE. 

The  utility  of  this  simple  implement  is  not  fully  realized,  we 


Farm  Implements  and  Their  Use.  81 

are  sure,  or  it  would  be  more  generally  employed.  One  man, 
with  a horse  and  a boy  (and  with  some  of  the  implements  the 
boy  is  not  required),  will,  upon  a favorable  surface,  perform 
the  work  of  eight  men  with  hand-rakes.  A horse-rake  is  not 
an  expensive  implement,  and  every  farmer  should  have  one. 
The  old  revolver  is  perhaps  the  best  for  general  use. 

VIII.— MOWERS,  REAPERS,  ETC. 

Of  the  expensive  labor-saving  agricultural  implements,  like 
the  mower,  the  reaper,  and  the  thrasher,  it  does  not  fall  within 
our  purpose  to  speak,  further  than  to  recommend  our  readers 
to  avail  themselves  of  the  grand  economies  which  they  afford, 
whenever  they  can,  by  combinations  with  their  neighbors  for 
joint  ownership  of  such  machines,  or  by  employing  those  kept 
for  the  purpose  of  being  hired  out.  The  small  farmer  can  not 
afford  to  invest  capital,  of  which  he  generally  has  too  little,  in 
these  implements  for  himself  alone.  Those  who  are  ‘engaged 
in  cultivation  on  a large  scale,  and  have  adequate  capital,  should, 
of  course,  own  these  labor-saving  machines. 

For  a complete  list  of  farm  implements,  with  an  approximate 
estimate  of  their  cost,  see  the  next  chapter. 


82 


The  Fabm 


VII. 

FARM  MANAGEMENT. 


A little  farm  well  tilled  ; 
A little  barn  well  filled  ; 
A little  wife  well  willed. 


I.— INTRODUCTORY. 


X 


Y tlie  permission  of  our  much  respected 
friend,  the  author,  we  here  present,  un- 
abridged, the  interesting  and  valuable  Essay 
on  Farm  Management,  by  J.  J.  Thomas, 
which  obtained  the  prize  from  the  New  York  State 
Agricultural  Society,  in  1844.  The  author,  in  ac- 
cording permission  to  use  this  document,  expresses 
his  regret  that  he  has  not  the  leisure  to  rewrite  it,  as  it  was 
written  many  years  ago,  under  much  disadvantage,  and  is  con- 
sequently less  perfectly  adapted  to  its  purpose  than  he  might 
now  make  it.  The  reader  will,  however,  find  it,  in  its  present 
form,  worth  more  than  anything  else  that  we  could  condense 
into  the  same  space. 


II.— THE  PRIZE  ESSAY. 

ON  FARM  MANAGEMENT. 

BY  J.  J.  THOMAS. 

The  great  importance  of  performing  in  the  best  manner  the 
different  operations  of  agriculture  is  obvious  to  every  intelligent 


Fakm  Management. 


83 


mind,  for  on  this  depends  the  success  of  farming.  But  a good  per- 
formance of  single  operations  merely  does  not  constitute  the  best 
farming.  The  perfection  of  the  art  consists  not  only  in  doing  every- 
thing well  individually,  hut  in  a proper  adjustment  and  system- 
atic arrangement  of  all  the  parts,  so  that  they  shall  he  done  not 
only  in  the  best  manner  and  at  the  right  time,  but  with  the  most 
effective  and  economical  expenditure  of  labor  and  money.  Every- 
thing must  move  on  with  clock-work  regularity,  without  inter- 
ference, even  at  the  most  busy  seasons  of  the  year. 

As  this  subject  includes  the  whole  routine  of  farming  in  a col- 
lected view  as  well  as  in  its  separate  details,  a treatise  upon  it 
might  be  made  to  fill  volumes  ; but  this  being  necessarily  con- 
fined to  a few  pages,  a general  outline,  with  some  remarks  on  its 
more  essential  parts,  can  only  be  given. 

Capital. — The  first  requisite  in  all  undertakings  of  magnitude 
is  to  “count  the  cost.”  The  man  who  commences  a building, 
which  to  finish  would  cost  ten  thousand  dollars,  with  a capital  of 
only  five  thousand,  is  as  certainly  ruined  as  many  farmers  are 
who,  without  counting  the  cost,  commence  on  a scale  to  which 
their  limited  means  are  wholly  inadequate.  One  of  the  greatest 
mistakes  which  young  farmers  make  in  this  country,  in  their  anx- 
ious wish  for  large  possessions,  is,  not  only  in  purchasing  more 
land  than  they  can  pay  for,  but  in  the  actual  expenditure  of  all 
their  means,  without  leaving  any  even  to  begin  the  great  work  of 
farming.  Hence,  the  farm  continues  for  a long  series  of  years 
poorly  provided  with  stock,  with  implements,  with  manure,  and 
with  the  necessary  labor.  From  this  heavy  drawback  on  the  prof- 
its of  his  land,  the  farmer  is  kept  long  in  debt  ; the  burden  of 
which  not  only  disheartens  him,  but  prevents  that  enterprise  and 
energy  which  are  essential  to  success.  This  is  one  fruitful  reason 
why  American  agriculture  is  in  many  places  in  so  low  a state.  A 
close  observer,  in  traveling  through  the  country,  is  thus  enabled 
often  to  decide  from  the  appearances  of  the  buildings  and  premises 
of  each  occupant,  whether  he  is  in  or  out  of  debt. 

In  England,  where  the  enormous  taxes  of  different  kinds  impe- 
riously compel  the  cultivator  to  farm  wrell  or  not  farm  at  all,  the 
indispensable  necessity  of  a heavy  capital  to  begin  with  is  fully 
understood.  The  man  who  merely  rents  land  there,  must  possess 
as  much  to  stock  it  and  commence  operations  as  the  man  who  buy* 


84 


The  Fakm. 


and  pays  for  a farm  of  equal  size  in  some  of  our  best  farming  dig 
tricts.  The  result  is,  that  he  is  enabled  to  do  everything  in  the 
best  manner  ; he  is  not  compelled  to  bring  his  goods  prematurely 
to  market  to  supply  his  pressing  wants ; and  by  having  ready 
money  always  at  command,  he  can  perform  every  operation  at  the 
very  best  season  for  product  and  economy,  and  make  purchases 
when  necessary  at  the  most  advantageous  rate.  The  English 
farmer  is  thus  able  to  pay  an  amount  of  tax  often  more  than  the 
whole  product  of  farms  of  equal  extent  in  this  country. 

The  importance  of  possessing  the  means  of  doing  everything  at 
exactly  the  right  season  can  not  be  too  highly  appreciated.  One 
or  two  illustrations  may  set  this  in  a clearer  light.  Two  farmers 
had  each  a crop  of  ruta-bagas  of  an  acre  each  ; the  first,  by  hoeing 
his  crop  early  while  the  weeds  were  only  an  inch  high,  accomplished 
the  task  with  two  days’  work,  and  the  young  plants  then  grew 
vigorously  and  yielded  a heavy  return.  The  second,  being  pre- 
vented  by  a deficiency  of  help,  had  to  defer  his  hoeing  one  week, 
and  then  three  days  more  by  rainy  weather,  making  ten  days  in 
all ; during  this  time  the  weeds  had  sprung  up  six  to  ten  inches 
high  ; so  as  to  require,  instead  of  two  days,  no  less  than  six  days  to 
hoe  them  ; and  so  much  was  the  growth  of  the  crop  checked  at  this 
early  stage  that  the  owner  had  150  bushels  less  in  his  acre  than  the 
farmer  who  took  time  by  the  forelock.  Another  instance  occur- 
red with  an  intelligent  farmer  of  this  State,  who  raised  two  fields 
of  oats  on  land  of  similar  quality.  One  field  was  sown  very  early, 
and  well  put  in,  and  yielded  a good  profit.  The  other  was  de- 
layed twelve  days  and  then  hurried  ; and  although  the  crop  was 
within  two  thirds  of  the  amount  of  the  former,  yet  that  difference 
was  just  the  clear  profit  of  the  first  crop  ; so  that  with  the  latter 
the  amount  yielded  only  paid  the  expenses. 

Admitting  that  the  farm  is  already  purchased  and  paid  for,  it 
becomes  an  object  to  know  what  else  is  needed  and  at  what  cost, 
before  cultivation  is  commenced.  If  the  buildings  and  fences  arc 
what  they  should  be,  which  is  not  often  the  case,  little  immedi- 
ate outlay  will  be  needed  for  them.  But  if  not,  then  an  estimate 
must  be  made  of  the  intended  improvements,  and  the  necessary 
gum  allotted  for  them.  These  being  all  in  order,  the  following 
items  requiring  an  expenditure  of  capital  will  be  required  on  a 
good  farm  of  100  acres  of  improved  land. 


Farm  Management.  85 

I.  LIVESTOCK. 

The  amount  will  vary  with  the  fertility  and  products  of  the  land, 
its  quality,  and  situation  with  regard  to  market.  The  following 
will  approximate  the  average  on  good  farms  taken  at  the  spring 
of  the  year  or  commencement  of  work  :* 

3 Horses,  at  $100 $300 

1  Yoke  oxen 150 

8 Milch  cows,  at  $3<> 240 

10  Steers,  heifers,  and  calves 100 

10  Pigs,  at  $3 30 

1W  Sheep,  at  $2  50 3T5 

Poultry— say 5 


Total $1,200 

II.  IMPLEMENTS. 

2 Plows  fitted  for  work $20  00 

1  Small  plow,  do 6 00 

1 Cultivator,  best  kind 7 00 

1 Drill-barrow 5 00 

1 Roller 5 00 

1 Harrow 10  00 

1 Fanning-mill 20  00 

1 Straw-cutter 15  00 

1 Root-slicer 8 00 

1 Farm-wagon,  with  hay-rack  etc 70  00 

1 Ox-cart 50  00 

1 Double  farm  harness 30  00 

1 Horse-cart 45  00 

1 Horse-cart  harness 18  00 

1 Root-steamer,  or  boiler 20  00 

1 Shovel  and  one  spade 2 50 

3 Steel-plate  hoes  1 50 

2 Dung-forks 2 00 

3 Hay-forks 2 25 

2 Hand-rakes 25 

1 Revolving  horse-rake 8 00 

1 Grain-cradle 4 00 

2 Scythes 4 00 

1 Wheelbarrow 4 00 

1 Pointed  shovel 1 25 

1 Grain-shovel, or  scoop-shovel..  1 25 

1 Pick 1 50 


Carried  forward $361  50 

* We  allow  the  figures  to  stand  as  in  our  first  edition.  If  we  add  to  each 
euin  the  premium  on  gold,  we  shall  approximate  present  prices. 


86 


Tiie  Farm. 


Brought  forward $861  50 

1 Mall  and  wedges 2 50 

2 Axes 4 00 

1 Hammer 50 

1 Wood-saw 1 00 

1 Turnip-hook 75 

1 Hay-knife 1 00 

2 Apple-ladders  (for  gathering). 1 50 

2 Large  baskets 1 25 

2 Hand-baskets 50 

1 Tape-line  (for  laying  off  land) 2 00 

2 Sheep-shears 2 00 

1 Grindstone 3 00 

1 Steel-yard,  large,  and  one  small 2 00 

1 Stable  lantern 50 

1 Curry-comb,  and  one  brush 75 

1 Half-bushel  measure 1 00 

20  Grain-bags 5 00 

1 Ox-chain 3 00 

1 Crow-bar * 2 00 

1 Sled  and  fixtures 30  00 


Total $425  75 


Other  articles  might  be  included,  as  subsoil  plow,  sowing  ma* 
cnine,  threshing  machine,  etc.  To  the  preceding  amount  ought 
to  he  added  one-tenth  the  expense  of  fencing  the  farm,  as  fences 
need  renewing  at  least  once  in  ten  years.  Every  farmer  should  also 
he  supplied  with  a small  set  of  carpenter’s  tools,  which  would  cost 
about  $12,  for  repairing  implements  in  rainy  weather  and  other 
useful  purposes.  This  set  should  include  saw,  hammer,  augers, 
planes,  adze,  mallet,  chisel,  square,  breast-hits,  etc.,  and  by  the 
convenience  and  economy  afforded,  would  soon  repay  their  cost. 

III.  SEEDS. 


2£  Bushels  clover  seed  for  10  acres $15  00 

2 “ corn  “ « 6 “ 1 00 

20  ‘ potatoes  “ 2 “ 10  00 

2 “ carrot  “ 1 “ 1 00 

40  Bushels  seed  wheat  “ 20  “ 40  00 

10  “ oats  “ 4 “ 4 00 

10  “ barley  “ 5 “ 6 00 


Total $77  00 


IV.  LABOR. 

Supposing  the  owner  to  labor  with  his  own  hands,  as  every 
owner  should,  so  far  as  is  consistent  with  a general  superintend 


Fakm  Management. 


87 


ence  of  all  parts,  which  would  probably  amount  to  one  half  the 
time,  he  would  need  besides  through  the  season  two  men  and  one 
boy,  and  in  the  winter  one  man  ; during  haying  and  harvest  he 
would  require  two  additional  hands.  The  men  boarding  them- 
selves, could  he  had  for  twenty  dollars  per  month  in  summer  and 
sixteen  in  winter ; if  boarded,  the  cost  of  their  meals  would  make 
up  the  deficiency  in  the  wages  to  the  same  amount.  The  expend- 
iture needed,  then,  would  be, 


2 Hired  men,  eight  months,  $20  per  month $320  00 

1 “ boy,  “ “ 10  “ 80  00 

Day  labor  in  harvest 30  00 

Total $430  00 


V.  MAINTENANCE  OF  ANIMALS. 

Cattle  and  sheep  would  need  hay  till  fresh  pasture,  and  horse3 
hay,  and  also  a good  supply  of  oats  till  after  harvest.  All  would 
be  benefited  by  a liberal  feeding  of  roots,  including  swine.  The 
amount  of  all  these  supplies  needed  would  be  about, 


7 Tons  of  hay $42  00 

200  Bushels  oats 80  00 

400  “ roots 50  00 


Total $172  00 

RECAPITULATION. 

Livestock $1,200  00 

Implements 425  75 

Seeds 77  00 

Labor 430  00 

Maintenance  of  animals 172  00 


Total $2,304  75 


— the  amount  of  capital  needed  the  first  year,  in  stocking  and 
conducting  satisfactorily  the  operations  of  one  hundred  acres  of 
improved  land,  several  items  being  doubtless  omitted. 

If  this  is  a larger  sum  than  the  young  farmer  can  command, 
let  him  purchase  only  fifty  acres,  and  reserve  the  rest  of  the  pur- 
chase money  which  would  be  needed  for  the  one  hundred  acres, 
to  commence  with  on  a smaller  farm,  and  he  will  scarcely  fail  to 
make  more  than  on  a larger,  with  every  part  subjected  to  an  im- 
perfect, hurrying,  and  irregular  management.  He  may  calculate, 
perhaps,  on  the  return  of  his  crops  in  autumn,  at  least  to  pay  his 


88 


The  Farm. 


hands.  But  he  must  remember  that  the  first  year  of  farming  is 
attended  with  many  expenses  which  do  not  usually  occur  after- 
ward, which  his  crops  may  not  repay,  besides  supporting  his  fam- 
ily and  paying  his  mechanics'  and  merchants’  bills.  The  first 
year  must  always  be  regarded  with  uncertainty  ; and  it  is  better 
to  come  out  at  the  end  on  a moderately  sized  farm,  well  tilled 
and  in  fine  order,  with  money  in  pocket,  than  on  a larger  one,  in 
debt,  and  hired  hands — a class  of  men  not  to  be  disappointed,  and 
who  ought  not  to  be — waiting  for  their  pay.  There  are  a far 
greater  number  of  farmers  embarrassed  and  crippled  by  placing 
their  estimate  of  expenses  too  low,  than  of  those  who  swing  clear 
and  float  freely  by  a full  previous  counting  of  cost. 

Size  of  Farms. — After  what  has  just  been  said,  the  cultivator 
will  perceive  in  part  the  advantages  of  moderately  sized  farms  for 
men  in  moderate  circumstances.  The  great  disadvantage  of  a su- 
perficial, skimming  culture  is  obvious  with  a moment’s  attention. 
Take  the  corn  crop  as  an  illustration.  There  are  a great  many 
farmers,  to  my  certain  knowledge,  whose  yearly  product  per  acre 
does  not  exceed  an  average  of  twenty -five  bushels.  There  are  other 
farmers,  whom  I also  well  know , who  obtain  generally  not  less  than 
sixty  bushels  per  acre,  and  often  eighty  to  ninety-five.  Now  ob- 
serve the  difference  in  the  profits  of  each.  The  first  gets  250 
bushels  from  ten  acres.  In  doing  this,  he  has  to  plow  ten  acres, 
harrow  ten  acres,  mark  out  ten  acres,  find  seed  for  ten  acres,  plant, 
cultivate,  hoe,  and  cut  up  ten  acres,  besides  paying  the  interest  on 
ten  acres,  worth  from  three  to  five  hundred  dollars.  The  other 
farmer  gets  250  bushels  from  four  acres  at  the  farthest ; and  he 
only  plows,  plants,  cultivates,  and  hoes,  to  obtain  the  same  amount, 
four  acres , which  from  their  fine  tilth,  and  freedom  from  grass  and 
weeds,  is  much  easier  done,  even  for  an  equal  surface.  The  same 
reasoning  applies  throughout  the  farm.  Be  sure,  then,  to  culti- 
vate no  more  than  can  be  done  in  the  best  manner,  whether  it  be 
ten,  fifty,  or  five  hundred  acres.  A friend  who  owned  a four-hun- 
dred-acre farm  told  me  that  he  made  less  than  his  next  neighbor, 
who  had  only  seventy-five.  Let  the  man  who  applies  a certain 
amount  of  labor  every  year  to  his  farm  reduce  its  dimensions  until 
that  labor  accomplishes  everything  in  the  very  best  manner.  He 
will  doubtless  find  that  the  amount  of  land  will  thus  become  much 
emaller  than  he  supposed,  more  so  than  most  would  be  willing  to 


Fakm  Management. 


89 


reduce  It ; but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  net  proceeds  from  it  will 
augment  to  a greater  degree  than  perhaps  could  possibly  be 
believed. 

But  let  me  not  be  misunderstood.  Large  farms  are  by  no  means 
to  be  objected  to,  provided  the  owner  has  capital  enough  to  per- 
form all  the  work  as  well  as  it  is  now  done  on  the  best  farms  of 
small  size. 

As  an  example  of  what  may  be  obtained  from  a small  piece  of 
land,  the  following  products  of  fifty  acres  are  given,  and  are  not 
more  than  I have  known  repeatedly  to  be  taken  from  good  land 
by  several  thorough  farmers  : 


10  Acres  wheat,  35  bushels  per  acre,  at  $1  00. . 

. . $350  00 

5 “ corn,  90 

u 

“ 

40.. 

180  00 

2 “ potatoes,  300 

u 

u 

20.. 

120  00 

1 Acre  ruta-bagas,  800 

« 

« 

10.. 

80  00 

6 Acres  winter  apples,  250 

u 

• 

25.. 

375  00 

6 “ hay,  2}  tons 

tt 

6 00.. 

90  00 

10  “ pasture,  worth 

60  00 

5 “ barley,  40  bushels  per  acre 

40.. 

80  00 

5 “ oats,  50 

“ 

n 

20.. 

50  00 

Total  products  of  fifty  acres  of  very  fine  land. . 

..  $1,385  00 

This  aggregate  yield  is  not  greater  than  that  obtained  by  some 
who  might  be  named,  from  a similar  quantity  of  land.  Good 
land  in  most  localities  could  be  brought  to  that  state  of  fertility 
very  easily,  at  a total  cost  of  one  hundred  dollars  per  acre,  and 
then  it  would  be  incomparably  cheaper  than  many  large  good 
farms  at  nothing  ; for,  while  the  fifty  acres  could  be  tilled  for 
three  hundred  and  eighty-five  dollars,  leaving  one  thousand  dol- 
lars net  profits,  large  poor  farms  hardly  pay  the  work  spent  upon 
them.  One  proprietor  of  such  a farm  declared,  “ It  requires  me 
and  my  hired  man  all  summer  hard  at  work  to  get  enough  to  pay 
him  onl} 

Laying  out  Farms. — This  department  is  very  much  neglected. 
The  proper  disposition  of  the  different  fields,  for  the  sake  of  econ- 
omy in  fencing,  for  convenience  of  access,  and  for  a full  command 
of  pasture  and  protection  of  crops  at  all  times,  has  received  com- 
paratively little  attention  from  our  agricultural  writers  and  from 
farmers. 

Many  suppose  that  this  business  is  very  quickly  disposed  of ; tlrat 
& very  few  minutes,  or  nours  at  most,  will  enable  a man  to  plan 


90 


The  Farm. 


the  arrangement  of  his  fields  about  right.  But  this  is  a great 
error.  Even  when  a farm  is  of  the  simplest  form,  on  a flat,  uni- 
form piece  of  ground,  many  things  are  to  be  borne  in  mind  in 
laying  it  out. 

In  the  first  place  we  all  know  that  the  fencing  of  a moderately 
sized  farm  costs  many  hundred  dollars.  It  is  very  desirable  to  do 
it  well,  and  use  at  the  same  time  as  little  material  as  possible.  To 
do  this  much  will  depend  on  the  shape  of  the  fields.  A certain 
length  of  fence  will  inclose  more  land  in  the  form  of  a square  than 
in  any  other  practical  shape.  Hence  fields  should  approach  this 
form  as  nearly  as  possible.  Again,  the  disposition  of  lanes  is  a 
matter  of  consequence,  so  as  to  avoid  unnecessary  length  and  fenc- 
ing and  occupy  the  least  quantity  of  ground. 

But  these  rules  may  be  materially  affected  by  other  consider- 
ations. For  instance,  it  is  very  desirable  that  land  of  a similar 
quality  may  be  in  the  same  inclosure.  Some  may  be  naturally 
too  wet  for  anything  but  meadow  or  pasture  : some  may  be  much 
lighter , and  susceptible  of  plowing,  while  others  are  not : some  may 
be  naturally  sterile,  and  need  unusual  manuring  with  green  crops. 
All  these  should,  as  far  as  practicable,  be  included  each  in  its  own 
separate  boundary.  The  situation  of  surface  drains,  forming  the 
boundaries  of  fields,  may  influence  their  shape  ; facilities  for  irri 
gation  may  have  an  essential  bearing  : convenience  for  watering 
cattle  is  not  to  be  forgotten.  Where,  in  addition  to  all  these 
considerations,  the  land  is  hilly,  still  more  care  and  thought  are 
required  in  the  subdivision,  which  may  possibly  require  years  of 
experience  ; but  where  fixed  fences  are  once  made,  it  is  hard  to 
remove  them  ; hence  a previous  thorough  examination  should  be 
made.  A farm  road,  much  used  for  heavy  loads,  should  be  made 
hard  and  firm,  and  can  not  easily  be  altered  ; it  consequently  should 
be  exactly  in  the  right  place,  and  be  dry,  level,  and  short ; the 
shape  of  adjoining  fields  even  conforming  with  these  requisitions  ? 
but  a road  little  used  should  not  interfere  with  the  outlines  of  fields. 
g o o o o G G 

In  laying  out  a farm  with  a very  uneven  surface  or  irregulai 
6hape,  it  would  be  best  to  draw,  first,  a plan  adapted  to  smooth 
ground,  and  then  vary  the  size  and  shape  of  the  fields,  the  dis- 
tance of  the  lane  from  the  center,  its  straightness,  etc.,  accord- 
ing to  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 


Farm  Management. 


91 


Fences.0 — The  kind  of  fence  used,  and  the  materials  used  foi 
its  construction,  must  depend  on  circumstances  and  localities.  A 
good  fence  is  always  to  be  preferred  to  an  imperfect  one  ; though  it 
will  cost  more,  it  will  more  than  save  that  cost,  and  three  times  the 
amount  in  vexation  besides,  by  keeping  cattle,  colts,  and  pigs  out 
of  fields  of  grain.  A thriving  farmer  whose  whole  land,  except  a 
small  part  with  stone  wall,  is  inclosed  by  common  rail  fence, 
with  upright  cedar  stakes,  and  connecting  caps  to  the  tops,  finds 
that  it  needs  renewing  once  in  six  years.  He  accordingly  divides 
his  whole  amount  of  fences  into  six  parts,  one  of  which  is  built 
new  every  year.  All  is  thus  kept  systematically  in  good  repair. 
Stone  walls,  if  set  a foot  below  the  surface  to  prevent  tumbling  by 
frost,  are  the  most  durable  fence.  Hedges  have  not  been  sufficient- 
ly tried.  The  English  hawthorn  is  not  well  adapted  to  our  hotter 
and  drier  climate,  and  though  sometimes  doing  well  for  a time,  is 
not  to  be  depended  on. 

Gates. — Every  field  on  the  farm  should  be  entered  by  a good 
self-shutting  and  self-fastening  gate.  A proper  inclination  in 
hanging  will  secure  the  former  requisite,  and  a good  latch,  prop- 
erly constructed,  the  latter.  Each  field  should  be  numbered,  and 
the  number  painted  on  the  gate-post.  Let  the  farmer  who  has 
bars  instead  of  gates,  make  a trial  of  their  comparative  convenience, 
by  taking  them  out  and  replacing  them  without  stopping  as  often 
as  he  does  in  one  year  on  his  farm,  say  about  six  hundred  times, 
and  he  can  not  fail  to  be  satisfied  which  is  the  cheapest  for  use. 

Buildings. — These  should  be  as  near  the  center  of  the  farm  as 
other  considerations  will  admit.  All  the  hay,  grain,  and  straw 
being  conveyed  from  the  fields  to  the  barn,  and  most  of  it  back 
again  in  manure,  the  distance  of  drawing  should  be  as  short  as 
possible.  This  will  also  save  much  traveling  of  men  and  cattle 
to  and  from  the  different  parts  of  the  farm.  The  buildings  should 


* Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  greatest  investment  in  this  country,  the  most 
costly  production  of  human  industry,  is  the  common  fences  which  divide  the 
fields  from  the  highway,  and  separate  them  from  each  other.  No  man  dreams 
that  when  compared  with  the  outlay  of  these  unpretending  monuments  of  art, 
our  cities  and  our  towns,  with  all  their  wealth,  are  left  far  behind.  You  will 
scarce  believe  me  when  I say  that  the  fences  of  ihis  country  have  cost  more 
than  twenty  times  the  specie  there  is  in  it.  In  many  of  the  counties  of  the 
Northern  States  the  fences  have  cost  more  than  the  farms  and  fences  are  worth* 
— Bur  nap . 


i>2 


The  Farm. 


not,  however,  be  too  remote  from  the  public  road,  and  a good, 
dry,  healthy  spot  should  be  chosen.  The  dwelling  should  be  com- 
fortable, but  not  large  ; or  it  should  rather  be  adapted  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  lands.  A large,  costly  house  with  a small  farm  and 
other  buildings,  is  an  indication  of  bad  management.  The  cen- 
sure of  the  old  Roman  should  be  avoided,  who,  having  a small 
piece  of  land,  built  his  house  so  large  that  he  had  less  occasion  to 
plow  than  to  sweep. 

The  barn  and  out-buildings  should  be  of  ample  extent.  The 
bam  should  have  space  for  hay,  grain,  and  straw.  It  is  a matter 
of  great  convenience  to  have  the  straw  for  littering  stables  housed 
and  close  at  hand,  and  not  out  of  doors,  under  a foot  of  snow. 
There  should  be  plenty  of  stables  and  sheds  for  all  domestic  ani- 
mals. This  provision  will  not  only  save  one  third  of  the  fodder, 
but  stock  will  thrive  much  better.  Cows  will  give  much  more 
milk,  sheep  will  yield  more  and  better  wool,  and  all  will  pass 
through  the  winter  more  safely.  The  wood-house,  near  or  attached 
to  the  dwelling,  should  never  be  forgotten,  so  long  as  comfort  in 
building  fires  and  economy  in  the  use  of  fuel  are  of  any  import- 
ance. 

A small,  cheap,  movable  horse-power  should  belong  to  every 
establishment,  to  be  used  in  churning,  sawing  wood,  driving  wash- 
ing machine,  turning  grindstone,  cutting  straw,  and  slicing  roots. 

There  should  be  a large  root-cellar  under  the  barn,  into  which 
the  cart  may  be  dumped  from  the  outside.  One  great  objection  to 
the  culture  of  roots,  in  this  country — the  difficulty  of  winter  keep- 
ing— would  then  vanish. 

Both  barns  and  house  cellars  should  be  well  coated,  on  the  bot- 
tom and  sides,  with  water-lime  mortar,  which  is  a very  cheap  and 
effectual  way  to  exclude  both  water  and  rats. 

Choice  of  Implements. — Of  those  which  are  much  used,  the  very 
best  only  should  be  procured.  This  will  be  attended  with  a gain 
in  every  way.  The  work  will  be  easier  done  and  it  will  be  better 
done.  A laborer  who,  by  the  use  of  a good  hoe  for  one  month, 
can  do  one  quarter  more  each  day,  saves,  in  the  whole  time,  an 
entire  week’s  labor. 

Choice  of  Animals. — The  best  of  all  kinds  should  be  selected, 
even  if  costing  something  more  than  others.  Not  “fancy”  ani- 
mals, but  those  good  for  use  and  profit.  Cows  should  be  product 


Farm  Management. 


93 


tve  of  milk,  and  of  a form  adapted  for  beef ; oxen  hardy,  and  fast- 
working  ; sheep,  kept  tine  by  never  selling  the  best ; swine,  not 
the  largest  merely,  but  those  fattening  best  on  least  food.  A Berk- 
shire at  200  pounds,  fattened  on  10  bushels  of  corn,  is  better  than 
a “ land  pike”  of  300,  fattened  on  50  bushels. 

Having  now  taken  some  notice  of  the  necessary  items  for  com- 
mencing farming,  it  remains  to  glance  a little  at 

Soils,  and  their  Management. — Soils  are  of  various  kinds,  as 
heavy  and  light,  wet  and  dry,  fertile  and  sterile.  They  all  require 
different  management  in  a greater  or  less  degree. 

Heavy  soils  are  often  stronger  and  more  productive  than  light ; 
but  they  require  more  labor  for  pulverization  and  tillage.  They 
can  not  be  plowed  when  very  wet,  nor  so  well  when  very  dry. 
Although  containing  greater  or  less  portions  of  clay,  they  may  be 
distinguished,  as  a class,  from  lighter  soils,  by  the  cloddy  surface 
the  fields  present  after  plowing  in  dry  weather,  by  their  cracking 
in  drouth,  and  by  their  adhesiveness  after  rains. 

Sandy  and  gravelly  loams  also  contain  clays,  but  in  smaller 
quantity  ; so  that  they  do  not  present  the  cloddiness  and  adhesive- 
ness of  heavy  soils.  Though  possessing,  generally,  less  strength 
than  clay  soils,  they  are  far  more  easily  tilled,  and  may  be  worked 
without  difficulty  in  wet  weather.  They  do  not  crack  or  break  in 
drouth.  Indian  corn,  ruta-bagas,  and  some  other  crops,  succeed 
best  upon  them.  Sandy  soils  are  very  easily  tilled,  but  are  gener- 
ally not  strong  enough.  When  made  rich,  they  are  fine  for  some 
succulent  crops.  Peaty  soils  are  generally  light  and  free,  contain- 
ing large  quantities  of  decayed  vegetable  matter.  They  are  made 
by  draining  low  and  swampy  grounds.  They  are  fine  for  Indian 
corn,  broom  corn,  barley,  potatoes,  and  turnips.  They  are  great 
absorbers,  and  great  radiators  of  heat ; hence  they  become  warm 
in  sunshine  and  cold  in  clear  nights.  For  this  reason  they  are 
peculiarly  liable  to  frosts.  Crops  planted  upon  them  must,  conse- 
quently, be  put  in  late,  after  spring  frosts  are  over.  Corn  should 
be  of  early  varieties,  that  it  may  not  only  be  planted  late,  but 
ripen  early. 

Each  of  these  kinds  of  soil  may  be  variously  improved.  Heavy 
soils  are  much  improved  by  draining  ; open  drains  to  carry  off  the 
surface-water,  and  covered  drains,  that  which  settles  beneath.  An 
acquaintance  covered  a low,  wet,  clayey  field  with  under- drains, 


94 


The  Faem. 


and  from  a production  of  almost  nothing  but  grass,  it  yielded  the 
first  year  forty  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre,  enough  to  pay  the  expense, 
and  admitted  of  much  easier  tillage  afterward.  Heavy  soils  are 
also  made  lighter  and  freer  by  manuring  ; by  plowing  under  coat- 
ings of  straw,  rotten  chips,  and  swamp  muck ; and,  in  some  rare 
cases,  by  carting  on  sand,  though  this  is  usually  too  expensive  foi 
practice.  Subsoil  plowing  is  very  beneficial  both  in  wet  seasons 
and  in  drouth  ; the  deep  loose  bed  of  earth  it  makes,  receiving 
the  water  in  heavy  rains,  and  throwing  it  off  to  the  soil  above, 
when  needed  ; but  a frequent  repetition  of  the  operation  is  needed, 
as  the  subsoil  gradually  settles  again. 

Sandy  soils  are  improved  by  manuring,  by  the  application  of 
lime,  and  by  frequently  plowing  in  green  crops.  Leached  ashes 
have  been  found  highly  beneficial  in  many  places.  Where  the 
subsoil  is  clayey,  which  is  often  the  case,  and  especially  if  marly 
clay,  great  advantage  is  derived  from  shoveling  it  up  and  spread- 
ing it  on  the  surface.  A neighbor  had  twenty  bushels  of  wheat 
per  acre  on  land  thus  treated,  while  the  rest  of  the  field  yielded 
only  five. 

Manures. — These  are  among  the  first  of  requisites  in  successful 
farm  management.  They  are  the  strong-moving  power  in  agri- 
cultural operations.  They  are  as  the  great  steam-engine  which 
drives  the  vessel  onward.  Good  and  clean  cultivation  is,  indeed, 
all  important ; but  it  will  avail  little  without  a fertile  soil ; and 
this  fertility  must  be  created  or  kept  up  by  a copious  application 
of  manures  ; for  these  contribute  directly  or  assist  indirectly  to  the 
supply  of  nearly  all  the  nourishment  which  plants  receive.  It  is 
these  which,  produced  chiefly  from  the  decay  of  dead  vegetable 
and  animal  matter,  combine  most  powerfully  to  give  new  life  and 
vigor  ; and  thus  the  apparently  putrid  mass  is  the  very  material 
which  is  converted  into  the  most  beautiful  forms  of  nature,  and 
plants  and  brilliant  flowers  spring  up  from  the  decay  of  old  forms  ; 
and  thus  a continued  succession  of  destruction  and  renovation  is 
carried  on  through  an  unlimited  series  of  ages. 

Manures  possess  different  degrees  of  power,  partly  from  their  in- 
herent richness,  and  partly  from  the  rapidity  with  which  they 
throw  off  their  fertilizing  ingredients,  in  assisting  the  growth  of 
plants.  These  are  given  off  by  solution  in  water,  and  in  the  form 
of  gas  ; the  one  as  a liquid  manure,  which,  running  down,  is 


Farm  Management.  95 

absorbed  by  the  roots  ; and  the  other,  as  air,  escaping  mostly  into 
the  atmosphere,  and  lost. 

The  great  art,  then,  of  saving  and  manufacturing  manure  con- 
sists in  retaining  and  applying,  to  the  best  advantage,  those  solu- 
ble and  gaseous  portions.  Probably  more  than  one  half  of  all  the 
materials  which  exist  in  the  country  are  lost,  totally  lost,  by  not 
attending  to  the  drainage  of  stables  and  farmyards.  This  could 
be  retained  by  a copious  application  of  straw  ; by  littering  with 
sawdust,  when  saw-mills  are  near  ; and,  more  especially,  by  the 
frequent  coating  of  yards  and  stables  with  dried  peat  and  swamp 
muck,  of  which  many  parts  of  our  States  furnish  inexhaustible 
supplies.  I say  dried  peat  or  muck,  because,  if  it  is  already  satura- 
ted with  water,  of  which  it  will  often  take  in  five  sixths  of  its  own 
weight,  it  can  not  absorb  the  liquid  portions  of  the  manure.  But 
if  it  will  absorb  five  sixths  in  water,  it  will,  when  dried,  absorb 
five  sixths  in  liquid  manure,  and,  both  together,  form  a very  en- 
riching material.  The  practice  of  many  farmers  shows  how  little 
they  are  aware  of  the  hundreds  they  are  losing,  every  yeai , by  suf- 
fering this  most  valuable  of  their  farm  products  to  escape.  Indeed, 
there  are  not  a few  who  carefully,  and  very  ingeniously,  as  they 
suppose,  place  their  barns  and  cattle-yards  in  such  a manner,  on 
the  sides  of  hills,  that  all  the  drainage  from  them  may  pass  off 
out  of  the  way  into  the  neighboring  streams  ; and  some  one  men- 
tions a farmer  who,  with  pre-eminent  shrewdness,  built  his  hog- 
pen directly  across  a stream,  that  he  might,  at  once,  get  the  clean- 
ings washed  away,  and  prevent  their  accumulation.  He,  of  course, 
succeeded  in  his  wish  ; but  he  might,  with  almost  equal  propriety, 
have  built  his  granary  across  the  stream,  so  as  to  shovel  the  wheat 
into  the  water  when  it  increased  on  his  hands. 

The  loss  of  manure,  by  the  escape  of  gas,  is  often  very  great. 
The  proof  of  this  was  finely  exhibited  by  Humphrey  Davy,  in  an 
experiment  performed  by  filling  a large  retort  from  a heap  of  fer- 
menting manure,  and  placing  the  beak  among  the  roots  of  some 
grass.  Nothing  but  vapor  left  the  vessel,  yet  in  a few  days  the 
grass  exhibited  greater  luxuriance  around  the  beak  of  the  retort 
than  any  of  the  surrounding  portions.  Hence  the  superiority  of 
unfermented  manures;  the  rich  portions  are  not  yet  lost.  And 
hence,  too,  the  importance  of  preventing  this  loss  by  an  immediate 
application,  and  plo  ving  into  tbe  soil,  or  by  mixing  it  in  composts 


96 


The  Farm. 


with  muck,  peat,  swamp  mud,  and  even  common  earth,  in  a dry 
state— and  of  preventing  its  escape,  from  stables  and  yards,  by  a 
daily  strewing  with  dried  peat,  lime,  or  plaster. 

Fresh  manure  is  generally  in  a state  not  readily  mixed  with  soils. 
It  is  thrown  into  large  lumps  over  the  surface,  some  of  which*are 
plowed  in,  others  not ; but  none  of  them  prove  of  immediate  use 
to  the  crops.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  fermented  manure,  from 
its  ready  pulverization,  admits  of  an  easy  admixture.  But  let 
fresh  manure  be  thoroughly  ground  down  and  worked  into  the 
soil  by  repeated  harrowings  and  two  or  three  plowings,  and  its 
influence  will  be  like  magic. 

Swamp  muck  has  often  been  spoken  of  as  manure ; but  those 
who  expect  great  and  striking  results  from  its  application  will  be 
disappointed.  Even  with  ashes,  it  is  much  less  powerful  than 
stable  manure,  not  only  because  it  possesses  less  inherent  richness, 
but  because  it  has  less  soluble  parts,  and,  consequently,  imparts 
its  strength  more  slowly  to  growing  plants.  But  this  quality 
only  makes  it  the  more  enduring.  By  decoction  in  water,  vege- 
table mold  loses  a small  portion  of  its  weight  by  solution  ; but  if 
the  remaining  insoluble  part  is  exposed  to  the  air  and  moisture  a 
few  months,  another  part  may  be  again  dissolved.  Thus,  peat, 
muck,  and  all  decayed  vegetable  fiber,  become  a slow  but  lasting 
source  of  nourishment  to  plants. 

But  it  is  when  shoveled  out  and  dried,  to  be  mixed  with  farm- 
yard manure,  as  a recipient  for  its  evanescent  parts,  that  peat  or 
muck  becomes  pre-eminently  valuable.  Some  parts  of  the  State 
abound  with  inexhaustible  supplies  in  almost  every  neighborhood  ; 
many  land- owners  have  from  twenty  to  a hundred  thousand  cubic 
yards  on  their  farms,  lying  untouched,  while  half-starved  crops 
are  growing  in  the  adjacent  fields.  There  are  whole  counties  so 
well  supplied  with  it  that,  if  judiciously  applied,  it  would,  doubt- 
less, double  their  aggregate  products. 

All  neat  farming,  all  profitable  farming,  and  all  satisfactory 
farming  must  be  attended  with  a careful  saving  of  manures.  The 
people  of  Flanders  have  long  been  distinguished  for  the  neatness 
and  excellence  of  their  farms,  which  they  have  studied  to  make 
like  gardens.  The  care  with  which  they  collect  all  refuse  materials 
which  may  be  converted  into  manures,  and  increase  tlieir  composts, 
is  one  of  the  chief  reasons  of  the  cleanliness  of  their  towns  and 


Fabm  Management. 


97 


residences  ; and  were  this  subject  fully  appreciated  and  attended 
with  a corresponding  practice  generally,  it  would,  doubtless, 
soon  increase,  by  millions,  the  agricultural  products  of  the  State. 

But  there  is  another  subject  of  scarcely  less  magnitude.  This  is 
a systematic 

Rotation  of  Crops. — If  manuring  is  the  steam-engine  which 
propels  the  vessel,  rotation  is  the  rudder  which  guides  it  in  its  prog- 
ress. Unlike  manuring,  rotation  does  not  increase  the  labor  of 
culture  : it  only  directs  the  labor  in  the  most  effective  manner  by 
the  exercise  of  judgment  and  thought. 

The  limits  of  this  paper  do  not  admit  of  many  remarks  on  the 
principles  of  rotation.  The  following  courses,  however,  have  been 
found  among  some  of  the  best  adapted  to  our  State  : 

I.  1st  year— Corn  and  roots,  well  manured. 

2d  year — Wheat,  sown  with  clover-seed ; 15  lbs.  an  acre. 

8d  year— Clover,  one  or  more  years,  according  to  fertility  and  amount  of 
manure  at  hand. 

II.  1st  year — Corn  and  roots,  with  all  the  manure. 

2d  year— Barley  and  peas. 

3d  year— Wheat,  sown  with  clover. 

4th  year — Clover,  one  or  more  years. 

III.  1st  year — Corn  and  roots,  with  all  the  manure. 

2d  year— Barley. 

3d  year— Wheat,  sown  with  clover. 

4th  year— Pasture. 

5th  year— Meadow. 

6th  year— Fallow. 

7th  year— Wheat.  , 

8th  year— Oats,  sown  with  clover. 

9th  year— Pasture  or  meadow. 

The  number  of  the  fields  must  correspond  with  the  number  of 
the  changes  in  each  course  ; the  first  needing  three  fields  to  carry 
it  out,  the  second  four,  the  third  nine.  As  each  field  contains  a 
crop  each,  in  the  several  successive  stages  of  the  course,  the  whole 
number  of  fields  collectively  comprise  the  entire  series  of  crops 
every  year.  Thus,  in  the  list  above  given,  there  are  two  fields  of 
wheat  growing  at  once,  three  of  meadow  and  pasture,  one  of  corn 
and  roots,  one  of  barley,  one  of  oats,  and  one  in  summer  fallow. 

Operations  in  the  Order  of  Time.  — The  vital  consequence  of 
doing  every  thing  in  the  right  season  is  known  to  every  good 
farmer. 

To  prevent  confusion  and  embarrassment,  and  keep  all  things 


98 


The  Fakm. 


clearly  and  plainly  before  the  farmer  at  the  right  time,  he  should 
have  a small  book  to  carry  in  his  pocket,  having  every  item  of 
work  for  each  week  or  each  half  month  laid  before  his  eyes.  This 
can  be  done  to  the  best  advantage,  to  suit  every  particular  locality 
and  difference  of  climate,  by  marking  every  successive  week  in  the 
season  at  the  top  of  its  respective  page.  Then  as  each  operation 
severally  occurs,  let  him  place  it  under  its  proper  heading  ; or  if 
out  of  season,  let  him  place  it  back  at  the  right  time.  Any  pro- 
posed improvement  can  be  noted  down  on  the  right  page.  Inter- 
esting experiments  are  often  suggested  in  the  course  of  reading  or 
observation,  but  forgotten  when  the  time  comes  to  try  them.  By 
jecording  them  in  such  a book,  under  the  right  week,  they  are 
brought  at  once  before  the  mind.  Such  an  arrangement  as  this 
will  prevent  a great  deal  of  the  confusion  and  vexation  too  often 
attendant  on  multifarious  cares,  and  assist  very  essentially  in  con  - 
ducting  all  the  farm  work  with  clock-work  regularity  and  satis- 
faction. 

In  reviewing  the  various  items  which  are  most  immediately 
essential  to  good  farm  management,  some  of  the  most  obvious 
will  be — capital  enough  to  buy  the  farm  and  to  stock  it  well ; to 
select  a size  compatible  with  these  requisites  ; to  lay  it  out  in  the 
best  manner  ; to  provide  it  well  with  fences,  gates,  and  buildings  ; 
to  select  the  best  animals,  and  the  best  implements  to  be  had, 
reasonably ; to  bring  the  soil  into  good  condition,  by  draining, 
manuring,  and  good  culture ; to  have  every  part  under  a good 
rotation  of  crops  ; and  every  operation  arranged  so  as  all  to  be 
conducted  systematically,  without  clashing  or  confusion.  An 
attention  to  all  these  points  would  place  agriculture  on  a very  dif- 
ferent footing  from  its  present  condition  in  many  places,  and  with 
most  farmers.  The  business,  then,  instead  of  being  repulsive,  as 
it  so  frequently  is  to  our  young  men,  would  be  attended  with 
real  enjoyment  and  pleasure. 

But  in  all  improvements,  in  all  enterprises,  the  great  truth  must 
not  be  forgotten,  that  success  is  not  to  be  expected  without  dili- 
gence and  industry.  We  must  sow  in  spring  and  cultivate  well 
in  summer,  if  we  would  reap  an  abundant  harvest  in  autumn. 
When  we  see  young  farmers  commence  in  life  without  a strict 
attention  to  business,  which  they  neglect  for  mere  pleasure,  well 
may  we  in  imagination  see  future  crops  lost  by  careless  tillage— 


Farm  Management. 


99 


broken  fences,  unhinged  gates,  and  fields  filled  with  weeds — tools 
destroyed  by  heedlessness,  property  wasted  by  recklessness,  and 
disorder  and  confusion  triumphant ; and  unpaid  debts,  duns,  and 
executions  already  hanging  over  the  premises.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  to  see  cheerful -faced,  ready-handed  industry,  directed  by 
reason  and  intelligence,  and  order,  energy,  and  economy,  guiding 
the  operations  of  the  farm — with  smooth,  clean  fields,  and  neat, 
trim  fences — rich,  verdant  pastures,  and  fine  cattle  enjoying  them  ; 
and  broad,  waving  meadows  and  golden  harvests,  and  waste  and 
extravagance  driven  into  exile,  we  need  not  fear  the  success  of 
such  a farmer  ; debts  can  not  stare  him  in  the  face,  nor  duns  enter 
his  threshold. 

It  is  such  enterprise  as  this  that  must  place  our  country  on  a 
substantial  basis.  Agriculture,  in  a highly  improved  state,  must 
be  the  means  which,  next  to  the  righteousness  which  truly  exalts 
a nation,  will  contribute  to  its  enduring  prosperity.  All  trades 
and  commerce  depend  on  this  great  art  as  their  foundation.  The 
cultivation  of  the  soil  and  of  plants  was  the  earliest  occupation  of 
man.  It  has,  in  all  ages,  been  his  chief  means  of  subsistence  ; it 
still  continues  to  furnish  employment  to  the  great  majority  of  the 
human  race.  It  is  truly  the  great  art  of  peace,  as  during  wars  and 
commotions  it  has  languished  and  declined,  but  risen  again,  in 
strength  and  vigor,  when  men  have  lived  at  peace  with  each  other  ; 
it  has  then  flourished  and  spread,  converted  the  wilderness  into 
life  and  beauty,  and  refreshed  and  adorned  nature  with  embellished 
culture.  For  its  calm  and  tranquil  pleasures — for  its  peaceful  and 
healthful  labors— away  from  the  fretful  and  feverish  life  of  crowd- 
ed cities,  “ in  the  free  air  and  beneath  the  bright  sun  of  heaven"' 
— many  who  have  spent  the  morning  and  noon  of  their  lives  in 
the  anxious  cares  of  commercial  life,  have  long  sighed  for  a scene 
of  peace  and  of  quietude  for  the  evening  of  their  days. 


100 


The  Farm. 


VIII. 

PARI  CROPS. 

Let  it  rain  potatoes. — Shakspeare. 

I. — THE  EDIBLE  GRAINS 

1.  Indian  Coen — Zea  Mays. 


AIZE  or  Indian  corn  is  cultivated  in  all 
countries  and  climates.  It  is  a native  of 
America,  where  the  aborigines  had  cultivated 
it  from  time  immemorial.  It  now  forms 
the  most  important  grain  crop  of  this  country, 
growing  with  luxuriance  in  every  State  of  the  Union, 
and  yielding  ample  harvests  everywhere. 

The  varieties  of  maize  in  cultivation  are  almost  numberless, 
and  new  sorts  are  constantly  being  produced.  No  plant,  per- 
haps, is  equally  susceptible  of  modification  by  hybridizing, 
cultivation,  soil,  and  climate.  At  the  North  it  is  dwarf  in  its 
habit,  and  requires  but  three  or  four  months  to  bring  it  to  ma- 
turity, while  at  the  South  it  reaches  a magnificent  height,  and 
is  much  longer  in  maturing.  A kind  of  corn  cultivated  in 
Oregon  has  a separate  sheath  or  envelop  for  every  distinct  ker- 
nel; hut  in  the  climate  of  New  York  it  soon  loses  this  charac- 
teristic, and  assumes  the  more  comprehensive  husk.  So  the 
low  growing,  early  Northern  corn,  if  cultivated  for  a few  years 


Farm  Crops.  101 

at  tlie  South,  becomes  taller,  larger,  and  later;  thus  approxi- 
mating to  the  Southern  varieties. 

The  principal  varieties  of  Indian  corn  in  extensive  use  for 
field  culture  in  the  United  States  are  the  Big  White,  Big  Yellow, 
Little  White,  Little  Yellow,  and  Virginia  Gourd  Seed  (yellow 
and  white).  Of  each  of  these  there  are  many  sub-varieties. 
The  King  Philip  or  Brown  Corn,  a very  early  and  small-growing, 
but  productive  variety,  is  much  approved  in  the  more  Northern 
States ; and  Peabody’s  Prolific  or  Tillering  Corn,  said  to  be  a 
wonderfully  productive  sort,  is  adapted  to  the  Southern  and 
Middle  States ; but  it  has  not  yet  been  extensively  tested.  In 
the  selection  of  varieties,  choose  for  general  planting  those  that 
have  been  proved  in  your  own  vicinity,  as  the  best  sort  of  one 
locality  may  prove  inferior  in  another.  For  trial,  get  new  sorts 
from  a more  northern  latitude,  especially  where  earliness  is 
particularly  desirable. 

The  best  soil  for  corn  is  a rich  loam,  but  good  crops  are  pro- 
duced, with  proper  manuring,  on  light,  sandy  land.  A strong 
clay,  or  a poor,  wet  soil,  will  not  produce  a good  crop.  Corn  is 
a gross  feeder,  and,  except  on  very  light,  sandy  soils,  fresh,  un- 
fermented manure  is  best  for  it.  Ashes  may  be  added,  or  ap- 
plied as  a top-dressing,  with  great  advantage ; also  the  salt  and 
lime  mixture. 

Indian  corn  should  always  be  planted  in  hills,  and  in  straight 
rows,  both  ways,  for  convenience  of  cultivation.  The  distance 
apart  of  the  hills  should  be  from  three  to  five  feet,  varying  with 
the  sort  of  corn  and  the  quality  of  the  land.  From  three  to 
five  stalks  in  a hill  is  better  than  a larger  number.  Soak  the 
seed  one  or  two  days  in  a solution  of  common  salt,  or,  better 
still,  of  saltpeter,  after  which  apply  a coat  of  tar  and  plaster, 
according  to  the  directions  given  in  Chapter  II.  This  will  not 
only  accelerate  the  growth  of  the  plant,  but  also  afford  an  effi- 
cient protection  against  both  worms  and  birds.  As  to  the 
proper  depth  for  covering  the  seed,  much  difference  of  opinion 
exists.  We  think  a depth  of  one  inch,  in  soil  of  medium  con- 
sistency and  humidity,  and  of  two  or  two  and  a half  inches  in 


102 


The  Farm. 


a dry,  sandy  soil  is  sufficient.  Plant  so  soon  as  the  ground  is 
sufficiently  warm  and  dry,  without  respect  to  the  day  of  the 
month.  The  blossoming  or  leafing  of  certain  trees  may  be 
taken  as  a guide.  Our  time  is  when  the  flower-buds  on  the 
apple-trees  begin  to  burst  open. 

The  after-culture  of  Indian  corn  may  mostly  be  performed 
with  a light  plow  and  a good  cultivator.  It  should  be  com- 
menced soon  after  the  plants  show  themselves  above  ground ; 
but  deep  culture  of  every  kind  should  be  discontinued  after  the 
roots  have  spread  through  the  soil,  as  they  can  not  be  disturbed 
without  great  injury.  Hilling  or  heaping  the  earth  about  the 
plants  is  an  absurd  and  injurious  process,  which,  instead  of 
helping  to  support  them,  as  many  suppose,  greatly  weakens  the 
stalks,  by  destroying  or  covering  up  the  prop-roots  with  which 
Hature  has  supplied  them.  This  compels  them  to  partially 
exhaust  themselves  by  putting  forth  others,  which  after  all  can 
not  efficiently  perform  their  office.  Indian  corn  requires  very 
little,  if  any,  earthing. 

In  reference  to  harvesting  Indian  corn,  a variety  of  opinions 
prevail.  Some  advocate  topping  it  soon  after  the  kernels  have 
become  glazed  or  checked,  believing  that  such  a course  hastens 
the  ripening  of  the  grain,  and  that  the  fodder  thus  cut  is  much 
more  valuable  than  when  left  till  the  corn  is  fully  ripened.  In 
these  opinions  the  advocates  of  topping  are  undoubtedly  cor- 
rect ; but,  on  the  other  hand,  experiments  seem  to  prove  that 
the  weight  of  the  grain  and  the  number  of  bushels  per  acre  is 
considerably  lessened  by  thus  cutting  the  stalks.  The . more 
common  practice  at  present,  except  at  the  South,  is  to  let  the 
crop  stand  till  the  kernels  are  principally  glazed,  and  then  cut- 
ting all  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  shocking  in  the 
field,  to  remain  till  dry  enough  to  husk.  The  grain  loses  a little 
in  weight,  no  doubt,  by  this  process,  but  the  fodder  is  more 
valuable  than  when  it  stands  till  fully  ripened,  and  the  crop 
thus  treated  is  placed  beyond  injury  from  frost.  This,  for  the 
Northern  and  Middle  States,  we  consider  the  best  way  to  har- 
vest Indian  corn ; although  a somewhat  greater  bulk  and  weight 


Farm  Crops.  103 

of  grain  may  be  obtained,  if  the  frosts  be  long  enough  deferred, 
by  allowing  nature  to  take  its  course. 

Corn  should  be  perfectly  dried  in  the  field,  husked,  and 
stored  in  an  airy  loft,  or  in  a properly  constructed  granary  or  crib. 

The  proper  selection  and  saving  of  seed  is  of  great  import- 
ance. It  should  be  selected  in  the  field  from  the  earliest  and 
largest  ears  of  the  most  prolific  stalks.  In  this  way  astonishing 
improvements  in  a variety  may  be  gradually  made.  Thomas 
N.  Baden,  Esq.,  of  Prince  George  County,  Md.,  by  carefully 
selecting  the  best  seed  in  his  field  for  a long  series  of  years, 
having  special  reference  to  those  stalks  which  produced  the 
greatest  number  of  ears,  ultimately  obtained  a variety  which 
yields  from  four  to  ten  ears  to  the  single  stalk. 

In  husking  seed  corn,  leave  a few  of  the  husks  upon  the  ears, 
with  which  to  braid  several  of  them  together,  for  convenience 
in  hanging  them  up.  They  should  be  hung  in  a dry,  airy  loft. 
In  shelling,  reject  both  extremities  of  the  ear  where  the  kernels 
are  imperfect  or  misshapen. 

The  expense  per  acre  of  cultivating  corn  varies  greatly  in 
different  parts  of  the  country,  being  influenced  by  soil,  climate, 
cost  of  manure,  price  of  labor,  etc.  For  New  York,  Judge  Buel 


estimates  as  follows : 

One  plowing  (suppose  a clover  lay)  $2  00 

Harrowing  and  planting 2 00 

Two  hoeings 3 75 

Harvesting 3 00 

Rent  of  land 5 00 

Total $15  75 


This  estimate  does  not  include  manure,  which  is  generally 
essential,  and  would  add  from  five  to  ten  dollars  to  the  expense. 
In  New  England  the  whole  expense  varies  from  twenty-five  to 
fifty  dollars.  A farmer  near  Philadelphia  estimates  it  at 
twenty-three  dollars  in  his  neighborhood ; another,  at  Bipley, 
Ohio,  gives  the  following : 

“I  subjoin  my  account  with  a corn-field  of  eighteen  acres. 
The  ground  and  the  corn  have  been  measured — there  is  no 
guess  work  about  it. 


10  4: 


The  Fakm. 


“ Timber — originally  walnut,  ash,  sugar  maple,  and  beech— 
has  been  under  cultivation  twenty  years — last  year  was  in 
w'heat,  and  the  year  before  in  corn.  Tne  soil  dark — ten  inches 
deep,  with  a clay  bottom — was  broken  up  eight  inches  deep 


with  a span  of  horses : 

Team  and  hand,  12f  days’  breaking,  $2 $25  50 

Cost  of  seed,  laying  off,  and  planting 13  05 

80£  days’  work,  harrowing,  plowing,  hoeing,  etc.,  871  cents 26  90 

Use  of  team,  equal  to  26£  days  single,  52  cents 13  91 

Repairing  tools 1 00 

Entire  cost,  board,  labor,  and  all $80  36 


“ The  yield  is  1,350  bushels,  costing  before  gathering  not  quite 
six  cents  per  bushel.”* 

Here  no  manure  is  used,  we  presume,  and  the  soil  requires 
less  cultivation  than  at  the  East,  in  order  to  produce  good  crops. 
The  expense  per  acre,  exclusive  of  harvesting,  according  to 
this  estimate,  is  less  than  $4  50. 

But,  leaving  these  estimates  out  of  the 
account,  the  fact  that  corn  is  generally 
one  of  the  most  profitable  crops  that  a 
farmer  can  cultivate,  may  be  set  down 
as  an  established  fact. 

2.  Wheat — Triticum  of  species. 

The  origin  of  wheat  is  unknown; 
but  it  is  certain  that  it  was  cultivated 
upward  of  a thousand  years  before  the 
Christian  era,  and  that  more  than  one 
sort  was  known  at  that  time,  for  it  is 
stated  in  the  book  of  Ezekiel  (xxvii.  7) 
that  “Judah  traded  in  wheat  of  Min- 
nith .”  Columella,  who  wrote  about  the 
time  of  Christ,  observes  that,  “ The  chief  and  the  most  profitable 
corns  for  men  are  common  wheat  and  bearded  wheat.” 
Botanists  describe  about  thirty  species  of  wheat,  and  some 


HEADS  OF  WHEAT. 


* “ W.  G.  A.*’  iu  Country  Gentleman 


Farm  Crops. 


105 


hundreds  of  varieties.  The  species  mainly  cultivated  in  the 
United  States  are  the  Winter  Wheat  and  the  Spring  Wheat,  in 
their  numerous  varieties. 

In  your  choice  of  varieties  it  is  best  to  be  governed,  as  in 
the  case  of  Indian  corn,  by  the  experience  either  of  yourself  or 
others.  From  the  ever-varying  character  of  the  various  kinds 
of  seed,  their  superiority  at  one  time  and  locality,  and  their 
inferiority  at  other  times  and  in  other  situations,  it  would  be 
worse  than  useless  for  us  to  recommend  any  particular  variety. 
Depend  upon  known  and  tried  sorts  till,  by  experiments  on  a 
small  scale,  you  are  satisfied  that  you  have  obtained  something 
better. 

Wheat  thrives  best  on  a strong,  clayey  loam,  but  many  light 
and  all  calcareous  soils,  if  in  a proper  condition,  will  give  a 
good  yield.  A glance  at  the  table  on  page  28  will  show  that 
potash,  lime,  and  phosphoric  acid  enter  largely  into  the  compo- 
sition of  the  grain,  and  that  both  lime  and  silica  abound  in  the 
straw ; for  this  reason,  rich  vegetable  soils  generally,  being  de- 
ficient in  these  elements,  are  not  well  adapted  to  wheat.  On 
such  soils  there  is  always  a tendency  to  rapid  growth,  large  but 
weak  straw,  and  light  grain  ; and  a liability  both  to  lodge  and 
to  rust.  A remedy,  however,  may  be  found  in  the  applica- 
tion of  ashes,  lime,  bone-dust,  etc.  The  soil  should  be  deep 
and  well  pulverized  with  the  plow  and  the  harrow.  Under- 
draining and  subsoil  plowing  add  greatly  to  the  amount  of 
the  crop. 

Select  seed  that  is  free  from  the  seeds  of  weeds  and  from 
smut,  if  this  be  possible ; but,  in  any  event,  it  is  well,  previous 
to  sowing,  to  wash  it  in  a strong  brine  made  of  salt  and  water, 
taking  care  to  skim  off  all  light  and  foreign  seeds.  If  the 
grain  be  smutty,  repeat  the  washing  in  another  clean  brine, 
when  it  may  be  taken  out  and  intimately  mixed  with  about  one 
twelfth  of  its  bulk  of  pulverized  quicklime. 

The  time  for  sowing  in  the  Northern  States  is  from  the  tenth 
to  the  twentieth  of  September,  but  it  is  often  successfully  sown 
both  earlier  and  later.  Sow  broadcast,  at  the  rate  of  from 

5* 


106 


The  Farm. 


three  to  five  pecks  to  the  acre,  and  harrow  thoroughly.  Rolling 
is  beneficial,  especially  on  light  soils. 

“Wheat  is  subject  to  the  attack  of  the  Hessian  fly,  if  sown 
too  early  in  the  fall,  and  again  the  ensuing  spring,  there  being 
two  annual  swarms  of  the  fly,  early  in  May  and  September. 
When  thus  invaded,  harrowing  or  rolling,  by  which  the  mag- 
gots or  flies  are  displaced  or  driven  off,  is  the  only  remedy  of 
much  avail.  Occasionally,  other  flies,  and  sometimes  wheat 
worms,  commit  great  depredation.  There  is  no  effectual  rem- 
edy known  against  any  of  these  marauders,  beyond  rolling, 
brushing,  and  harrowing.” 

Smut  is  a parasitic  fungus,  of  a brown  or  blackish  color, 
which  grows  upon  the  head  and  destroys  the  grain.  We  have 
indicated  the  only  remedy  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  in 
speaking  of  the  preparation  of  the  seed. 

“ The  grain  should  be  cut  immediately  after  the  lowest  part 
of  the  stalk  becomes  yellow,  while  the  grain  is  yet  in  the 
dough  state,  and  easily  compressible  between  the  thumb  and 
finger.  Repeated  experiments  have  demonstrated  that  wheat 
cut  at  this  time  will  yield  more  in  measure,  of  heavier 
weight,  and  a larger  quantity  of  sweet,  white  flour.  If  early 
cut,  a longer  time  is  required  for  curing  before  storing  or 
threshing.” 

Spring  wheat  should  be  sown  so  early  as  the  ground  will 
admit.  The  best  crops  are  raised  on  land  that  has  been 
plowed  the  previous  fall,  and  sown  without  additional  plowing, 
but  harrowed-in  thoroughly. 

Propagation  may  be  extended  with  incredible  rapidity  by 
dividing  the  plant.  The  English  Philosophical  Transactions 
give  the  result  of  a trial,  made  by  planting  a single  grain  on  the 
2d  of  June.  “ On  the  8th  of  August  it  was  taken  up  and  sepa- 
rated into  eighteen  parts,  and  each  planted  by  itself.  These 
were  subdivided  and  planted,  between  15th  of  September  and 
15th  of  October,  and  again  the  following  spring.  From  this 
careful  attention,  in  a fertile  soil,  500  plants  were  obtained,  some 
containing  100  stalks  bearing  heads  of  a large  size;  and  the 


Farm  Crops. 


107 


total  produce  within  the  year  was  386,840  grains  from  the  single 
one  planted.” 

3.  Rye — Secale  Cereale. 

This  plant  is  supposed  to  he  a native  of  the  Caspian  Cauca- 
sian desert.  It  is  more  hardy  than  wheat,  and  will  flourish  on 
soils  too  poor  or  too  destitute  of  lime  for  wheat.  It  has  taken 
the  place  of  wheat  in  many  portions  of  the 
country,  where  repeated  crops  of  the  latter  have 
exhausted  the  soil  of  some  of  the  requisite  ele- 
ments for  its  growth.  The  best  soil  for  it  is  a 
rich,  sandy  loam,  but  it  grows  freely  on  the 
lightest  sandy  and  gravelly  soils  that  are  capable 
of  sustaining  any  kind  of  vegetation.  The  di- 
rections for  the  preparation  of  soil  and  seed,  and 
for  cultivation,  harvesting,  etc.,  are  the  same  as 
for  wheat;  but  it  is  sometimes  sown  among 
standing  corn  and  hoed  in,  the  ground  being  left 
as  level  as  possible.  So  soon  as  the  corn  is  ma- 
tured, it  is  cut  up  by  the  roots  and  removed  to 
the  sides  of  the  field,  when  the  ground  is  thor- 
oughly rolled. 

Winter  rye  and  spring  rye  are  varieties  of  the 
same  species,  and  may  readily  be  transformed 
into  each  other.  Sow  from  five  pecks  to  two 
bushels  to  the  acre,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  soil,  the 
richest  lands  demanding  most.  Winter  rye  may  be  sown  from 
the  20th  of  August  to  the  20th  of  September,  and  spring  rye 
so  soon  as  the  state  of  the  soil  will  permit  in  the  spring. 

Rye,  when  ground  and  unbolted,  is  much  used  in  New  England 
to  mix  with  Indian  corn  meal,  for  bread-making.  The  corn 
meal  is  scalded,  and  the  loaves  baked  for  a long  time.  The 
product  is  known  as  “ rye-and-Indian  bread,”  and  is  much  es- 
teemed and  very  wholesome.  There  is  a peculiar  aroma  and 
flavor  connected  with  the  husk  of  the  grain,  which  is  lost  in 
the  bolted  flour.  Dr.  Thaer,  the  distinguished  German  physi- 
cian and  agricultural  writer,  says  that  “this  substance  has  a 


EAR  OF  RYE. 


108  The  Farm. 

singularly  strengthening,  refreshing,  and  beneficial  effect  on  the 
animal  frame.” 


4.  The  Oat — Avena  Sativa. 

This  grain  will  grow  on  any  soil  and  in  almost  any  climate. 
It  is  affected  less  by  disease,  and  has  fewer  insect  enemies  than 
most  of  the  cereals.  The  wire  worm, 
however,  occasionally  proves  destruc- 
tive to  it,  when  sown  on  fresh  sod. 

The  remedy  in  this  case  is  to  turn 
over  the  sod  late  in  the  fall,  just  be- 
fore the  severe  winter  frosts. 

There  are  many  varieties  and  sub- 
varieties  of  the  oat.  Loudon  describes 
the  following  : 

“The  White  or  Common  Oat  is  in 
most  general  cultivation  in  England 
and  Scotland,  and  is  known  by  its 
white  husk  and  kernel. 

“ The  Black  Oat,  known  by  its  black 
husk,  and  cultivated  on  poor  soils  in  the  north  of  England  and 
Scotland. 

“ The  Red  Oat,  known  by  its  brownish-red  husk,  thinner  and 
more  flexible  stem,  and  firmly-attached  grains.  It  is  early, 
suffers  little  from  winds,  meals  well,  and  suits  windy  situations 
and  a late  climate. 

“ The  Poland  Oat,  known  by  its  thick,  white  husk,  awnless 
chaff,  solitary  grains,  short,  white  kernel,  and  short,  stiff  straw. 
It  requires  a dry,  warm  soil,  but  is  very  prolific. 

“ The  Black  Poland  Oat  is  one  of  the  best  varieties ; it  some- 
times weighs  50  lbs.  to  the  bushel. 

“The  Friesland  or  Dutch  oat  has  plump,  thin-skinned,  white 
grains,  mostly  double,  and  the  large  ones  sometimes  awned. 
It  has  longer  straw  than  the  Poland,  but  in  other  respects  re- 
sembles it. 

“The  Potato  Oat  has  large,  plump,  rather  thick-skinned. 


Fakm  Ceops. 


100 


white  grains,  double  and  treble,  with  longer  straw  than  either 
of  the  two  last.  It  is  now  almost  the  only  kind  raised  in  the 
north  of  England  and  south  of  Scotland,  and  brings  a higher 
price  in  London  than  any  other  variety. 

“ The  Georgian  Oat  is  a large-grained,  remarkably  profitable 
variety,  and  on  rich  soil,  in  good  tilth,  has  produced  more  than 
any  other  variety. 

“ The  Siberian  or  Tartarian  is  by  some  conceded  a distinct 
species.  The  grains  are  black  or  bsown,  thin  and  small,  and 
turned  mostly  to  one  side  of  the  panicle,  and  the  straw  is  coarse 
and  reedy.  It  is  little  uultivated  in  England,  hut  is  found  very 
suitable  for  poor  soils  and  exposed  situations. 

“The  Winter  Oat  is  sown  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  per  acre 
in  October,  the  plants  are  luxuriant  and  tiller  well,  and  afford 
good  winter  and  spring  pasture  for  ewes  and  lambs,  and  when 
these  are  shut  out,  it  affords  an  ample  crop  of  grain  in  August.” 

The  heaviest  oat  cultivated  in  the  United  States  is  the  Impe- 
rial ; and  it  is  preferred  by  many  to  all  others.  It  is  bright  and 
plump,  and  yields  a large  proportion  of  nutritive  matter.  It 
has  proved  very  productive  in  the  Northern  and  Middle  States. 
But  the  variety  most  cultivated  is  the  common  White  Oat, 
which  is  hardy  and  a good  bearer. 

The  only  oat  that  will  mature  with  certainty  in  the  Southern 
States  is  the  Egyptian.  It  is  sound,  hardy,  and  moderately 
productive.  It  is  sown  in  autumn. 

At  the  North,  oats  may  he  sown  from  the  first  of  March  till 
the  last  of  May ; but  the  earliest  sown  usually  yield  the  best 
crops.  From  two  to  four  bushels  to  the  acre  are  sown  in  this 
country ; but  in  England  they  sow  from  four  to  six.  The  land 
should  he  prepared  by  plowing  and  harrowing,  after  which  the 
seed  should  be  sown  broadcast,  and  harrowed  in.  On  most 
soils  rolling  is  beneficial. 

Oats  may  he  mowed  or  cut  with  the  cradle  or  the  sickle. 
They  are  fit  to  harvest  when  they  begin  to  turn  yellow. 

As  an  article  of  diet,  the  oat  is  not  properly  appreciated  in 
this  country,  oatmeal  being  little  eaten  except  by  foieigners. 


110 


The  Farm. 


In  Ireland  and  Scotland  it  is  a common  article  of  diet.  It 
would  be  well  for  us  if  it  were  so  here.  It  is  wholesome  and 
strengthening.  It  is  prepared  by  grinding  the  kiln-dried  seeds, 
which  have  been  previously  deprived  of  their  husks  and  outer 
skin. 

5.  Barley — Hordeum  of  species. 

In  Europe  this  grain  ranks  next  to  wheat  in  importance ; but 
it  is  much  less  extensively 
cultivated  in  the  United 
States. 

Professor  Lowe  enu- 
merates six  species  of 
barley,  but  two  only  are 
in  general  cultivation — 
the  Two-Bowed  and  the 
Six-Bowed.  In  England, 
the  latter  is  preferred  for 
its  superior  hardiness  and 
productiveness;  but  the 
former  is  more  generally 
cultivated  in  this  country, 
the  Six-Bowed  being,  heads  of  barley. 

with  us,  more  subject  to  the  smut. 

Like  rye,  it  may  be  made  either  a winter  or  a spring  grain ; 
but  in  this  country  it  is  almost  universally  sowed  in  the  spring. 
Sow  so  soon  as  the  ground  is  sufficiently  dry,  on  land  plowed 
the  previous  fall.  If  sown  on  sod,  it  may  be  lightly  plowed  in, 
and  afterward  harrowed  or  rolled.  Sow  about  two  bushels  to 
the  acre,  on  soil  of  medium  richness.  If  sown  very  early,  a 
smaller  quantity  of  seed  will  suffice.  A loam  of  medium  con- 
sistency, between  light  and  heavy,  is  best  for  it.  Barn-yard 
manures  must  never  be  applied  directly  to  this  grain.  Steeping 
the  seed  twenty -four  hours  in  a weak  solution  of  saltpeter  is 
beneficial.  The  roller  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  field,  when 
the  plants  are  two  or  three  inches  high,  with  great  benefit. 

It  is  of  great  importance  to  harvest  barley  at  the  proper  time. 


Farm  Crops. 


Ill 


If  cut  too  early,  the  kernels  shrink  very  much,  and  if  suffered 
to  stand  too  long,  the  grain  wastes  at  the  slightest  touch,  the 
heads  breaking  off  and  falling  to  the  ground.  It  is  known  to 
be  ripe  by  the  disappearance  of  the  reddish  cast  from  the  ear, 
the  drooping  of  the  heads,  and  the  yellowish  color  of  the  stalks. 
It  may  be  stacked  like  wheat. 

Barley  is  very  useful  as  an  article  of  human  food,  but,  like 
oats,  is  too  much  neglected  in  the  United  States,  being  used 
principally  for  malting  and  brewing.  In  the  form  of  'pearl 
barley,  which  is  the  small,  round  part  of  the  kernel  that 
remains  after  the  skin  and  a part  of  the  seed  are  ground  off,  it 
is  excellent  when  cooked  in  the  same  way  as  rice — either  simply 
boiled  or  in  puddings. 

6.  Kice — Oryza  Sativa. 

Kice  probably  affords  food  for  more  human  beings  than  any 
other  plant.  In  China,  and  nearly  the 
whole  length  of  the  southern  part  of 
Asia ; throughout  the  innumerable  and 
densely  populated  islands  of  the  Pacifio 
and  Indian  oceans ; in  the  southern  part 
of  Europe,  and  a large  extent  of  Africa ; 
and  through  no  inconsiderable  portion 
of  North  and  South  America  and  the 
West  Indies,  it  is  extensively  grown,  and 
forms  the  staple  food  of  the  inhabitants. 

The  varieties  of  rice  most  grown  in 
South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  which  have 
hitherto  been  the  greatest  rice-producing 
States  of  the  Union,  are  the  Gold-seed 
rice,  the  Guinea,  the  Common  White, 
and  the  White-bearded.  There  are  sev- 
eral other  varieties,  but  generally  infe- 
rior to  the  foregoing.  The  best  are 
produced  by  careful  cultivation  on  soils 
suited  to  this  grain,  and  by  a careful  selection  of  seed. 


The  Farm. 


114 

The  method  of  cultivation  pursued  on  the  rice  lands  of  the 
lower  Mississippi,  as  detailed  by  Dr.  Cartwright,  a practica. 
planter,  is  as  follows : 

“ The  seed  is  sown  broadcast  about  as  thick  as  wheat,  and 
harro  wed-in  with  a light  harrow,  having  many  teeth;  the 
ground  being  first  well  plowed  and  prepared  by  ditches  and 
embankments  for  inundation.  It  is  generally  sown  in  March, 
and  immediately  after  sowing,  the  water  is  let  on,  so  as  barely 
to  overflow  the  ground.  The  water  is  withdrawn  on  the  sec- 
ond, third,  or  fourth  day,  or  as  soon  as  the  grain  begins  to 
swell.  The  rice  very  soon  after  comes  up  and  grows  finely. 
When  it  has  attained  about  three  inches  in  height,  the  water  is 
again  let  on,  the  top  leaves  being  left  a little  above  the  water. 
Complete  immersion  would  kill  the  plant.  A fortnight  pre- 
vious to  harvest  the  water  is  drawn  off  to  give  the  stalks 
strength,  and  to  dry  the  ground  for  the  convenience  of  the 
reapers. 

“ The  same  measure  of  ground  will  yield  three  times  as  much 
rice  as  wheat.  The  only  labor  after  sowing  is  to  see  that  the 
rice  is  properly  irrigated;  except  in  some  localities,  where 
aquatic  plants  prove  troublesome,  the  water  effectually  destroy- 
ing all  others.  The  rice  grounds  of  the  lower  Mississippi  pro- 
duce about  seventy-five  dollars’  worth  of  rice  per  acre.  The 
variety  called  the  Creole  white  rice  is  considered  to  be  the  best.”* 

Upland  rice  is  cultivated  entirely  with  the  plow  and  harrow, 
and  grows  well  on  the  pine  barrens.  A kind  of  shovel  plow, 
drawn  by  one  horse,  is  driven  through  the  unbroken  pine  for- 
est, not  a tree  being  cut  or  belted,  and  no  grubbing  being  neces- 
sary, as  there  is  little  or  no  undergrowth.  The  plow  makes  a 
shallow  furrow  about  an  inch  or  two  deep,  the  furrows  about 
three  feet  ap§rt.  The  rice  is  dropped  into  them  and  covered 
with  a harrow.  The  middles,  or  spaces  between  the  furrowp, 
are  not  broken  up  until  the  rice  attains  several  inches  in  height. 
One  or  two  plowings  suffice  in  the  piney  woods  for  its  cultiva* 


* The  “ A nerican  Farm  Book.” 


Farm  Crops.  113 

tion — weeds  and  grass,  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  not 
being  troublesome. 

Kice  prepared  according  to  the  following  recipe  makes  a dish 
which  we  prefer  to  the  richest  rice  pudding,  and  which  is  cer- 
tainly far  more  wholesome : 

Slowly  simmer  the  rice  in  milk  three  or  four  hours,  or  til 
the  grains  burst  and  absorb  the  milk ; add  a little  sugar ; put 
the  whole  into  a wide  dish,  and  bake  till  slightly  brown.  Eat 
with  milk  or  butter. 

7.  Buckwheat — Polygonum  Fagopyrum. 

Buckwheat  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  United  States ; as 

it  affords  a flour  which  is 
much  esteemed  as  an  article 
of  food.  It  will  grow  with 
considerable  luxuriance  on 
the  poorest  land.  It  comes 
to  maturity  so  quickly  that  it 
is  frequently  sowed  upon 
ground  from  which  wheat  or 
some  other  crop  has  been 
taken.  When  intended  for 
seed  it  should  be  sown  sufff 
ciently  early  to  allow  the 
kernel  to  become  perfectly 
ripe — say  from  the  middle  of 
June  to  the  first  of  July.  In 
Hew  York  it  is  often  sown 
in  August  with  winter  wheat, 
affording  a ripe  crop  in  the 
buckwheat  plant.  fall,  without  injury  to  the 

wheat,  except  so  far  as  it  may  exhaust  the  soil.  It  is  sown 
broadcast,  at  the  rate  of  from  a bushel  to  a bushel  and  a half 
per  acre.  In  harvesting  it  is  usually  mowed  with  a scythe,  and 
made  into  small  stacks. 

Buckwheat  is  often  used  for  plowing  under  as  a green  manure. 


114 


The  Faem. 


This  can  be  done  where  the  land  is  too  poor  to  produce  clover 
for  that  purpose.  When  in  flower,  it  should  be  first  rolled,  and 
then  plowed  in. 

8.  Millet — Panicum  of  species. 

The  species  generally  cultivated  for  the  seed  is  the  P . millia- 
ceum . As  a forage  crop,  the  German  millet  (P.  Germanicum) 
is  preferable,  and  is  coming  into  extensive  use,  especially  at  the 
West.  The  common  species  is  sown,  either  broadcast  or  in 
drills,  from  the  first  of  May  to  the  first  of  July.  If  for  hay,  it 
is  best  sown  broadcast  about  five  pecks  to  the  acre.  In  drills, 
which  is  the  best  way  when  cultivated  for  the  grain,  eight 
quarts  will  suffice. 

Of  the  German  millet  or  Hungarian  grass  we  shall  have  more 
to  say,  under  the  head  of  the  grasses. 

II. — HOW  TO  SHOCK  GRAIN. 

Many  a valuable  harvest  may  be  preserved  from  ruin  by 
taking  heed  to  the  following  hints  from  a practical  farmer. 
They  are  from  that  excellent  paper,  the  Ohio  Farmer . The 
readers  of  this  little  manual  shall  have  no  excuse  for  the  too 
common  awkward  and  inefficient  modes  of  shocking  grain. 
Here  are  our  sensible  farmer’s  rules : 

u 1.  Grain  should  be  firmly  bound  in  smaller  sheaves  than  it 
is  almost  universally  found.  Loosely  bound  sheaves  can  not  be 
well  shocked.  They  also  admit  more  rain  than  tightly  bound 
ones. 

“2.  Two  men  can  shock  better  and  more  advantageously 
than  one. 

“ 3.  Let  the  shocker  always  take  two  sheaves  at  a time,  hold- 
ing them  with  his  elbow  against  his  side,  bringing  the  heads 
together  with  hands  well  spread  upon  them.  Lift  them  as  high 
as  possible,  bringing  them  with  force,-  in  as  nearly  a perpen- 
dicular position  as  can  be,  to  the  ground.  Never  make  the 
second  thrust , if  the  sheaves  stand  erect,  for  every  one  after 
the  first,  by  breaking  the  butts,  makes  the  matter  worse. 


Farm  Crops. 


115 


“ 4.  Then  let  two  persons  bring  down  two  sheaves  each  at  the 
%ame  time , as  before  described,  being  extremely  careful  to  keep 
them  perpendicular.  The  form  of  shock  at  this  * * * 

period  may  be  represented  thus : * * * 

u5.  As  lastly  stated,  two  more  each,  thus:  * * 

The  reader  will  perceive  we  now  have  ten  sheaves,  * ^ * * 

forming  a circle  as  nearly  as  can  be.  * * 

“6.  While  one  man  presses  the  head  of  the  * * 

shock  firmly  together,  let  the  other  break,  not  bend,  the  two 
cap  sheaves,  and  place  them  on,  well  spreading  heads  and  butts. 

“The  main  points  are,  to  have  grain  well  bound , sheaves 
made  to  stand  in  an  erect  position,  and  then  to  put  cap  sheaves 
on  firmly,  and  every  gust  of  wind  will  not  demolish  your  work. 

u Grain  is  usually  shocked  in  this  manner : One  sheaf  is  made 
to  stand  alone,  another  is  leaned  against  it,  and  another,  some- 
times at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  ‘ to  make  them  stand 
up,’  until  a sufficient  number  is  thought  to  be  leaned  up. 

“Now  the  probability  is,  that  there  is  but  one  sheaf  in  the 
whole  shock  that  has  its  center  of  gravity  within  its  base ; as  a 
matter  of  course,  each  depends  on  some  other  to  hold  it  up 
Consequently  they  twist ; and  if  the  shock  does  not  fail  down 
before  the  hands  get  the  next  one  up,  it  most  certainly  will 
during  the  first  rain,  just  when  the  perpendicular  position  is  most 
necessary.” 


III.— THE  LEGUMES. 

1.  The  Kidney  Bean — Phaseolus  Vulgaris. 

The  bush  or  dwarf  kidney  bean  is  frequently  cultivated  as  a 
field  crop.  There  are  many  sorts  that  may  be  profitably  used 
for  this  purpose,  but  the  Small  White  is  generally  preferred,  as 
it  is  very  prolific,  quite  hardy,  will  grow  in  light,  poor  soil,  and 
is  more  delicately  flavored  than  the  colored  varieties.  The 
Long  White  garden  bean  is  also  good.  See  “ The  Garden”  for 
u list  of  the  best  varieties  for  horticultural  purposes. 

The  bean  succeeds  best  on  a light,  warm,  and  moderately 
fertile  soil.  A strong  soil,  or  too  much  manure,  induces  a 


116  The  Farm. 

tendency  to  run  to  vine,  without  a corresponding  quantity  of 
fruit. 

Plant  either  in  hills  or  in  drills.  If  you  have  a sower,  or 
drill  for  putting  them  in,  the  latter  is  the  best  mode.  The  drills 
may  be  from  two  to  three  feet  apart,  the  hills  from  eighteen 
inches  to  two  feet  each  way.  From  five  to  eight  plants  are 
enough  for  a hill.  They  must  he  kept  clear  from  weeds  by  the 
use  of  the  hoe  or  cultivator ; hut  should  be  earthed  up  very 
slightly,  if  at  all.  The  first  of  June  is  sufficiently  early  to  plant 
them.  They  are  sometimes  planted  with  corn,  putting  three  or 
four  beans  in  each  hill.  This  may  he  done  either  at  the  time 
of  planting  the  corn,  or  at  the  first  hoeing. 

The  best  mode  of  harvesting  beans  with  which  we  are  ac- 
quainted is  thus  described  by  a correspondent  of  the  Country 
Gentleman : 

“ Place  a small  pole  or  stick  a foot  in  the  ground,  and  five  or 
six  above  ground ; around  this  stick  lay  some  stones,  say  from 
four  to  six  inches  high,  and  from  twenty  to  thirty  inches  in 
diameter ; then  place  your  beans,  with  the  stems  against  the 
pole,  allowing  the  roots  to  be  on  the  opposite  side ; your  next 
handful  you  lay  with  the  top  on  those  last  laid  roots,  and  the 
roots  of  this  on  the  pod  and  leaves,  and  so  on  to  the  top,  form- 
ing, as  you  proceed,  a sugar-loaf,  keeping  it  round,  or  as  you 
would  build  a stack,  tying  the  top  with  a straw  hand.  Thus 
you  throw  the  water  all  to  the  outside,  the  beans  being  so  com- 
pact as  not  to  admit  water.  You  can  by  this  means  allow  them 
to  remain  in  the  field  until  you  are  ready  to  thresh  them  in 
November  or  December,  the  stones  at  bottom  keeping  them 
dry.  In  carting  to  the  barn  I loosen  the  pole  by  shaking,  nd 
take  hold  bottom  and  top,  and  throw  pole  and  beans  into  the 
wagon ; by  doing  so  you  do  not  shell  the  beans.” 

As  an  article  of  food,  the  bean  has  been  undervalued.  It  is, 
when  properly  cooked,  very  palatable  and  exceedingly  nutri- 
tious. It  abounds  in  legumin , which  is  analogous  to  casein , the 
animal  principle  in  milk,  and  is  essentially  the  same  as  the 
fibrin  of  lean  meat. 


Farm  Crops. 


117 


Sheep  are  very  fond  of  beans,  and  the  straw  or  haulm  makes 
an  excellent  fodder  for  them.  No  other  animal,  we  believe, 
will  eat  beans  raw  ; but  cattle,  hogs,  and  poultry  thrive  on  them 
when  cooked. 


2.  The  Pea — Pisum  Sativum. 

The  Marrowfat  and  Small  Yellow  peas  are  the  sorts  generally 
used  for  field  culture.  The  Marrowfat  is  the  richer  and  better 
pea,  and  is  to  be  preferred  for  good  soils.  The  Small  Yellow 
thrives  on  poorer  soils,  and  is  therefore,  in  some  cases,  more 
profitably  cultivated.  In  some  parts  of  the  South  a very  prolific 
bush  pea  is  cultivated  and  much  esteemed  for  the  table,  both 
green  and  dry. 

Prepare  the  ground  as  for  any  other  spring  crop,  by  plowing 
and  harrowing,  and  sow  broadcast,  at  the  rate  of  two  or  two 
aud  a half  bushels  to  the  acre.  Cover  them  with  the  harrow 
or  the  cultivator,  the  latter  implement  being  preferable,  and 
smooth  the  ground  by  the  use  of  the  roller. 

In  harvesting  the  pea,  some  farmers  hook  them  up  with  a 
scythe,  and  some  rake  them  up  by  hand  with  the  common 
rake ; but  the  most  expeditious  and  best  way,  by  far,  is  to  use 
the  horse-rake  in  gathering  this  crop. 

Peas  are  easily  threshed  and  prepared  for  market,  and  may 
be  made  a very  profitable  crop ; from  thirty  to  forty  bushels 
per  acre  being  not  an  uncommon  yield.  As  an  article  of  food, 
they  are  excellent  “both  for  man  and  beast.” 

The  great  enemy  of  the  pea  is  the  pea-weevil  or  pea-bug, 
which  is  too  well  known  to  require  description.  It  deposits  its 
egg  in  the  growing  pea,  by  piercing  the  tender  pod.  As  a 
remedy,  some  recommend  keeping  the  seed  in  tight  vessels  over 
one  year.  This  plan,  if  universally  adopted,  would  probably 
lead  to  the  total  extermination  of  this  destructive  insect ; but 
as  this  is  not  likely  to  be  the  case,  the  only  practicable  way  to 
avoid  its  ravages  is  by  late  sowing.  It  has  been  ascertained 
that  it  is  limited  to  a certain  period  for  depositing  its  eggs; 
peas,  therefore,  which  are  planted  sufficiently  late  in  the  season 


118 


The  Farm. 


to  postpone  tlieir  seeding  beyond  this  period,  are  not  injured. 
The  time  for  planting  to  avoid  the  bug  ranges,  in  different  lati- 
tudes where  experiments  have  been  made,  from  May  20th  to 
June  lOtl* 

The  Chinese  Prolific  pea  and  the  Japan  pea  are  new  sorts, 
which  seem  to  promise  valuable  additions  to  our  leguminous 
crops. 

The  plant  called  Cow-pea  or  Indian  pea,  and  sometimes  Stock 
pea,  is  extensively  cultivated  in  some  of  the  Southern  States, 
both  as  a forage  crop  and  a fertilizer.  It  is  sown  broadcast,  in 
drills,  or  hoed  in  among  Indian  corn,  when  the  latter  is  laid  by 
for  the  season.  When  intended  for  cattle,  it  is  harvested  before 
the  seed  is  fully  ripe.  It  may  be  harvested  in  the  same  way  as 
the  common  pea. 

3.  The  Pea-Mot — Arachis  Hypogcea. 

This  is  a legume  bearing  its  pods  under  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  It  was  originally  brought  from  Africa. 

A Morth  Carolina  planter  thus  describes  the  mode  of  cultiva- 
tion : w So  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  the  land  is 
broken  up,  and  about  the  middle  of  April  laid  off  with  the  plow 
thirty-three  inches  each  way;  two  or  three  peas  are  then 
dropped  in  the  crosses  thus  made.  The  plants  are  kept  clean 
with  hoes  and  plows  until  the  vines  cover  the  ground;  but  no 
dirt  is  put  on  the  vines.  In  October  they  are  dug  with  a rake 
or  plow.  Hogs  are  then  turned  into  the  field,  and  they  soon 
fatten  upon  the  peas  left  upon  the  ground.  When  the  vines  are 
left  upon  the  land  for  the  hogs  to  feed  upon,  there  is  no  crop 
that  improves  the  land  so  much. 

IY. — ESCULENT  BOOTS. 

1.  The  Potato — Solarium  Tuberosum . 

This  most  valuable  of  all  the  esculent  roots  is  a native  of  the 
American  continent,  and  is  now  found  in  a wild  state  in  parts 
of  South  America.  It  was  probably  introduced  into  southern 


Farm  Crops. 


119 


Europe  by  the  Spanish  adventurers,  and  into  England  by  Sir 
Walter  Baleigh.  In  this  country  it  has  been  cultivated  from 
the  first  settlement;  but  until  a comparatively  recent  period 
only  to  a limited  extent. 

In  reference  to  the  choice  of  varieties  for  planting,  the  best 
advice  we  can  give  will  be  simply  a repetition  of  our  recom- 
mendations in  respect  to  several  other  plants : Choose  such  as 
have  been  well  tested  by  yourself  or  others,  and  found  adapted 
to  the  soil  and  purposes  for  which  they  are  to  be  cultivated. 
Try  your  experiments  with  new  sorts,  on  a small  scale,  and 
with  close  observation  of  the  results.  Experiment  also,  if  lei- 
sure serve,  in  the  production  of  new  varieties  from  the  seeds 
found  in  the  balls.  See  directions  in  “ The  Garden.” 

A fair  crop  of  potatoes  may  be  produced  on  almost  any  soil, 
properly  manured  and  prepared  and  well  cultivated,  but  a rich 
loam,  of  medium  humidity,  is  best.  If  fresh  or  unfermented 
manures  be  used,  they  should  be  spread  on  the  land,  and  plowed 
under,  and  not  scattered  in  the  drills  or  hills,  as  they  are  apt  to 
injure  the  flavor  of  the  potatoes.  Lime,  crushed  bones,  gypsum, 
salt,  and  ashes  are  excellent  special  manures  for  the  potato. 
The  soil  should  be  made  loose  and  mellow  before  planting. 

In  reference  to  seed,  planting,  and  cultivation,  opinions  and 
practices  differ  widely.  We  have  not  room  to  discuss  the  va- 
rious points  in  controversy  between  different  scientific  and 
practical  agriculturists.  All  that  our  plan  will  permit  is  to  give 
our  own  mode  of  cultivation,  leaving  our  readers  to  try  it  in 
connection  with  other  methods,  and  adopt  the  best. 

We  choose  for  seed  good,  well  ripened,  medium-sized  pota- 
toes, such  as  we  would  select  for  the  table.  These  we  should 
prefer  to  plant  whole,  but,  seed  being  scarce  and  dear,  we  think 
it  economical  to  cut  each  into  two  or  four  pieces,  according  to 
the  size.  We  cut  them  three  or  four  days,  at  least,  before  they 
are  wanted  for  planting,  roll  them  in  plaster  of  Pans,  and 
spread  them  on  the  floor  in  an  airy  loft  to  dry. 

We  plant  in  drills  from  two  and  a half  to  three  and  a half 
feet  apart,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  soil  and  the  sort  of 


120 


The  Farm. 


potatoes  planted,  some  varieties  producing  much  larger  tops 
than  others.  On  some  soils  we  should  plant  in  hills,  for  conve- 
nience of  cultivation  with  the  plow  and  cultivator,  but  on  light 
and  loamy  soils  tolerably  free  from  weeds  and  unobstructed  by 
stones,  w'e  prefer  the  drills.  We  drop  our  sets  from  six  to  nine 
inches  apart  in  the  drills,  and  cover  to  a depth  of  three  or  four 
inches. 

When  the  shoots  have  fairly  made  their  appearance  above 
giound,  we  run  a plow  between  the  rows,  throwing  the  earth 
well  to  the  plants,  and  following  with  a hoe,  if  necessary.  This 
plowing,  or  plowing  and  hoeing,  are  repeated  once  or  twice 
before  the  blossoms  appear,  but  not  afterward. 

The  harvesting  is  commenced  so  soon  as  the  tops  are  mostly 
dead.  We  allow  only  sufficient  exposure  to  the  sun  to  dry  the 
tubers,  and  then  store  them  at  once  in  bins  or  barrels,  where 
they  will  be  secure  against  frost,  covering  them  with  straw  or 
dry  sand,  to  prevent  the  circulation  of  air. 

For  an  early  crop  we  plant  only  the  seed  ends,  but  for  the 
earliest  possible  crop  we  should  proceed  as  follows : 

Select  medium-sized  or  large  tubers  early  in  February,  and 
prepare  them  by  carefully  cutting  out  all  the  eyes,  except  the 
crow-eye  or  eyes  (for  there  are  sometimes  two  of  them),  and 
then  place  them  in  a layer,  on  some  dry  sand,  in  a shallow  box, 
and  cover  them  with  sand,  chaff,  or  straw,  and  keep  them  in  a 
warm  room,  where  light  can  be  freely  admitted.  When  the 
shoots  appear,  they  must  be  exposed  to  the  light  as  much  as 
possible,  by  partially  removing  the  covering  during  the  day, 
but  keeping  them  carefully  covered  at  night,  when  there  is  any 
danger  from  cold.  The  leaves  soon  become  green  and  tolerably 
hardy.  Early  in  March  they  may  be  planted  out  in  a warm 
southern  exposure,  covering  them  so  as  to  just  expose  the  leaves 
above  ground.  Give  them  a covering  of  straw  or  litter  at  night, 
whenever  there  is  danger  from  frost.  By  this  means  you  may 
have  potatoes  fit  for  the  table  two  or  three  weeks  earlier  than 
by  planting  in  the  ordinary  way.  A modification  of  this  plan 
is  to  forward  the  sets  prepared,  as  before,  on  a heap  of  fer- 


Farm  Crops.  121 

meriting  manure,  in  some  warm  exposure  in  the  open  air,  cov- 
ering them  well  at  night  when  the  weather  is  cold. 

In  “The  Garden”  (page  76)  we  have  given  a description  of 
the  method  pursued  by  Mr.  Peabody,  of  Georgia,  for  raising 
potatoes  under  straw.  We  are  convinced  that  his  plan  is  a 
good  one  for  the  South,  and  late  experiments  seem  to  prove 
that  it  works  well  at  the  North  also.  A correspondent  of  the 
Ohio  Valley  Farmer , for  instance,  says : 

“ Having  a quantity  of  wheat  straw  near  a piece  of  ground  I 
was  planting  with  potatoes,  I concluded  to  try  the  straw-cover- 
ing process.  The  soil , if  I may  so  call  it,  was  hard  yellow 
clay . On  the  surface,  and  without  any  preparation  of  the 
ground,  I distributed  my  potatoes,  covering  them  some  six  or 
eight  inches  with  straw,  and  did  nothing  more  to  them.  They 
grew  finely,  and  in  the  fall  I took  hold  of  the  tops  and  “ drawed ” 
my  crop.  I found  the  tubers  of  a good  size,  and  nice,  bright, 
and  clean  enough  for  the  boiler ! and  the  yield  much  greater 
than  of  those  planted  in  sod  ground  in  the  usual  way.” 

Another  correspondent  of  the  same  paper  makes  the  follow- 
ing strong  statement  : 

“We  have  the  three  last  years  planted  our  potatoes  under 
straw,  and  have  got  more  than  double  the  quantity , on  the 
same  ground,  with  less  work  in  planting  and  gathering.  Our 
plan  is  to  prepare  the  ground  as  thoroughly  as  possible,  then 
mark  it  out  with  the  plow,  as  close  as  we  can ; drop  the  pota- 
toes six  inches  apart  in  same,  cover  as  lightly  as  possible  with 
the  soil,  then  take  the  wagon  containing  the  straw,  and  spread 
lightly  to  cover  the  ground.  In  this  manner  the  work  is  done 
till  harvest-time.  We  then  take  the  potato-hook,  and  rake  the 
straw  into  winrows,  and  our  crop  is  nearly  all  in  sight,  ready 
to  be  gathered.” 

We  have  not  ourself  sufficiently  tested  this  mode  of  planting, 
to  speak  with  confidence  from  our  own  experience.  Let  our 
thousands  of  readers  try  it,  and  report  through  the  papers ! 

“ Of  the  potato  disease  or  rot,”  as  we  have  remarked  in  “The 
Garden,”  “little  can  profitably  be  here  said.  Its  cause  and 

6 


122 


Tiie  Farm. 


remedy  have  yet  to  be  made  known.  As  preventives,  a dry, 
or  an  underdrained  soil;  the  use  of  lime,  salt,  and  ashes;  the 
absence  of  fresh  stable  manure;  early  planting;  and  new, 
healthy  varieties,  may  be  confidently  recommended.”  Thorough 
underdraining  alone  is,  we  believe,  generally  effective  in  pre- 
venting the  disease. 

2.  The  Sweet  Potato — Convolvulus  Batatas. 

This  is  the  potato  of  the  South,  and  is  much  cultivated  in  the 
Middle  and  Western  States.  In  its  perfection,  as  it  grows  in 
South  Carolina  and  the  other  extreme  Southern  States,  it  is  the 
best  of  all  the  esculent  roots. 

The  varieties  most  cultivated  are  the  Small  Spanish,  long, 
purplish  color,  grows  in  clusters,  very  productive,  and  of  good 
quality ; Brimstone,  sulphur-colored,  long,  large,  and  excellent ; 
Bed  Bermuda,  the  best  early  potato;  Common  Yam,  root  ob- 
long and  large,  the  best  keeper,  and  very  productive. 

A dry,  loamy  soil,  inclining  to  sand,  is  best  for  the  sweet  po- 
tato. The  manure  should  be  plowed  in,  and  the  ground  well 
pulverized.  A top-dressing  of  wood  ashes  is  very  beneficial. 

The  Spanish  varieties  are  generally  planted  where  they  are 
to  remain,  either  whole  or  cut  up  into  sets.  But  these  may, 
and  the  yams  must  be,  propagated  by  slips,  as  they  grow  larger 
and  yield  more  abundantly. 

To  raise  slips,  select  a sunny  spot,  sheltered  by  fences  or 
buildings,  and  lay  it  off  in  beds  four  feet  wide,  with  alleys  of 
the  same  width  between  them.  Slope  the  beds  a little  toward 
the  sun,  and  add  plenty  of  well-rotted  manure,  if  the  soil  be 
not  already  rich.  Do  this  in  February  or  early  in  March. 
Choose  large,  smooth,  healthy-looking  potatoes,  and  lay  them 
regularly  over  the  bed,  an  inch  or  two  apart,  and  cover  them 
with  three  or  four  inches  of  soil  from  the  alleys.  It  requires 
ten  bushels  of  potatoes,  thus  bedded,  for  an  acre  of  ground. 

Lay  off  your  ground  in  low,  horizontal  ridges  or  beds,  the 
crowns  of  which  should  be  three  feet  apart,  and  about  six 
inches  high,  on  which,  when  the  slips  are  ready,  ^ hich  will  be 


Farm  Crops. 


123 


about  the  middle  of  April,  plant  them  out  eighteen  inches 
apart,  one  plant  in  a place,  choosing  a wet  or  cloudy  day  for 
the  operation.  Draw  the  slips  when  from  three  to  four  inches 
high,  by  placing  the  left  hand  on  the  bed,  near  the  sprout,  to 
steady  the  root  and  prevent  it  from  being  pulled  up  v ith  the 
sprout.  This  is  loosened  with  the  right  hand  from  the  parent 
tuber,  which  will  continue,  if  undisturbed,  to  produce  a suc- 
cession of  sli]  s till  the  first  of  July.  Stir  the  soil  frequently, 
keeping  the  weeds  well  subdued.  Be  careful  not  to  cover  the 
vines,  but  if  they  become  attached  to  the  soil,  loosen  them  from 
it,  so  that  the  whole  vigor  of  the  plant  may  go  to  the  forma- 
tion of  tubers.  Make  the  hills  large  and  flat.  When  they  have 
been  laid  by,  it  is  a good  plan  to  fill  up  the  spaces  between  the 
rows  with  litter,  when  the  ground  is  wet,  to  retain  the  moisture. 

So  soon  as  the  tops  are  dead  or  touched  by  the  frost,  the 
^rop  should  be  gathered. 

Sweet  potatoes  are  difficult  to  keep.  The  following  is  Mr. 
Peabody’s  plan : 

“Let  the  small  heaps  dry  during  the  day.  In  handling 
them,  take  care  not  to  bruise  or  injure  the  skin,  as  the  least 
bruise  produces  rapid  decay.  Put  them  up  in  hills  containing 
thirty  or  forty  bushels  each.  Make  a circular  trench  as  large 
as  the  hill  you  wish  to  make.  Elevate  the  earth  surrounded  by 
it  six  inches,  or  at  least  sufficiently  to  prevent  the  access  of 
moisture.  Cover  this  with  straw,  and  heap  the  potatoes  upon 
it  in  a regular  cone.  If  the  weather  be  good,  cover  them  only 
with  pine  or  other  straw  for  two  or  three  days,  that  the  pota- 
toes may  be  well  dried  before  earthing  up.  The  covering  of 
straw  should  be  three  Or  four  inches  thick.  Cover  this  with 
strips  of  pine  bark,  commencing  at  the  base,  and  covering  as  in 
shingling,  leaving  a small  aperture  at  the  top  for  the  escape  of 
the  heat  and  moisture  generated  within.  Cover  this,  except 
the  aperture,  with  earth,  to  the  thickness  of  four  or  five  inches. 
Some  cover  the  opening  in  the  top  with  a piece  of  pine  hark, 
to  keep  out  the  rain,  but  a board  shelter  for  the  whole  heap  is 
preferable.  In  the  spring  take  up  the  potatoes,  rub  off  the 


124 


The  Farm. 


sprouts,  and  keep  them  on  a dry  floor.  If  put  up  with  care, 
they  will  keep  till  July.”* 

Baked,  or  roasted  in  hot  ashes,  the  sweet  potato  is  one  of  the 
most  delicious  and  nutritive  of  all  vegetables.  They  are  also 
used  for  pies  and  puddings,  and  sweet-potato  rolls  are  excellent. 

3.  The  Turnip — Brassica  Bepa. 

In  England  the  turnip  crop  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  and 
important  in  the  whole  compass  of  agricultural  production. 
Fields  of  hundreds  of  acres  are  sometimes  seen,  and  inclosures 
of  fifteen  or  twenty  are  common.  Here  they  are  cultivated  to 
a more  limited  extent,  differences  of  opinion  existing  in  refer- 
ence to  the  profit  of  their  cultivation  as  a crop  for  feeding  stock. 

“In  the  corn-growing  regions  of  the  fertile  West,  from  the 
facility  with  which  Indian  corn  can  be  grown,  and  the  low 
price  of  it  in  many  sections  of  the  country,  and  its  nutritive 
value  over  that  of  roots  is  such,  that  it  is  doubtless  more  profit- 
able growing  corn  than  roots  for  feeding  purposes.  But  in  the 
Northern  States,  where  corn  is  usually  worth  from  80  cents  to 
$1  per  bushel,  we  believe  farmers  would  generally  find  it  for 
their  interest  to  grow  a certain  amount  of  roots,  proportioned 
to  the  number  of  cattle  and  other  stock  they  winter.  Aside 
from  the  actual  amount  of  nutritive  food  that  roots  afford,  we 
think  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  winter  condition  of  our 
farm  stock  would  be  greatly  improved  by  a daily  feed  of  succu- 
lent food,  even  if  it  were  but  four  quarts  per  day  to  each  animal, 
with  their  dry  hay  and  straw ; but  with  a larger  allowance  of 
roots,  cattle  can  be  kept  in  good  condition  through  our  long 
winters  on  hay  of  poor  quality,  or  on  straw,  and  so  they  can  in 
freely  feeding  Indian  meal  or  oil  cake ; but  in  sections  of  the 
country  where  corn  is  worth  one  dollar  per  bushel,  and  oil  cake 
in  a similar  ratio,  it  is  presumed  roots  would  be  found  the 
cheapest.”! 

The  varieties  of  the  turnip  are  numerous.  The  flat  English 


* While’s  “ Gardening  for  the  South*” 


t Country  Gentleman 


Farm  Crops. 


125 


turnip  has  been  longest  in  cultivation,  and  still  holds  its  place 
among  most  farmers  as  a field  crop.  It  thrives  best  on  new 
land  and  freshly  turned  sod,  but  will  grow  wherever  Indian 
corn  can  be  raised. 

The  English  turnip  may  be  sown  from  the  middle  of  June  to 
the  first  of  August,  either  broadcast  or  in  drills.  If  sown 
broadcast,  about  two  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  will  be  required. 
The  seed  should  be  lightly  harrowed  or  bushed  in.  Drilling  it 
in  with  the  seed  sower  and  cultivating  with  the  cultivator  or 
hoe  is  the  better  way.  The  crop  will  be  materially  assisted  by 
a top-dressing  of  lime,  ashes,  and  plaster,  at  the  rate  of  fifteen 
or  twenty  bushels  of  the  first  two,  and  from  one  and  a half  to 
three  of  the  last. 

English  turnips  are  often  sowed  among  Indian  corn  at  the 
last  hoeing,  producing,  in  many  cases,  a fair  crop. 

The  Ruta  Baga  or  Swedes  turnip  is  a far  more  valuable  root 
than  the  English,  but  requires  a little  more  attention  in  cultiva- 
tion. It  will  grow  on  a heavier  soil,  yield  as  good  a crop,  fur- 
nish a more  nutritive  root*  and  keep  longer. 

“ The  Swedes  turnip  is  generally  sown  in  drills  about  two 
feet  apart,  and  on  heavy  lands  these  should  be  slightly  ridged. 
The  plants  must  be  successively  thinned,  to  prevent  interfering 
with  such  as  are  intended  to  mature,  but  enough  should  remain 
to  provide  for  casualties.  Where  there  is  a deficiency,  they 
may  be  supplied  by  transplanting  during  showery  weather. 
They  should  be  left  six  or  eight  inches  apart  in  the  drills.  The 
Swede  turnip  is  a gross  feeder,  and  requires  either  a rich  soil  or 
heavy  manuring;  though  the  use  of  fresh  manures  has  been 
supposed  to  facilitate  the  multiplication  of  enemies.  Bones, 
ground  and  drilled  in  with  the  seed,  or  a dressing  of  lime,  ashes, 
gypsum,  and  salt,  are  the  best  applications  that  can  be  made. 
The  Swede  should  be  sown  from  the  20th  May  to  the  15th 
June,  and  earlier  than  the  English  turnip,  as  it  takes  longer  to 
mature;  and  two  or  three  weeks  more  of  growth  frequently 
adds  largely  to  the  product.  An  early  sowing,  also,  gives  time 
to  plant  for  another  crop,  in  case  of  failure  of  the  first. 


126 


The  Farm. 


u The  turnip  is  exposed  to  numerous  depredators,  of  which 
the  turnip  flea-beetle  is  the  most  inveterate.  It  attacks  the 
plant  so  soon  as  the  first  leaves  expand,  and  often  destroys  two 
or  three  successive  sowings.  When  the  fly  or  bug  is  discovered, 
the  application  of  lime,  ashes,  or  soot,  or  all  combined,  should 
be  made  upon  the  leaves,  while  the  dew  or  a slight  moisture  is 
on  them.”* 

Harvesting  should  be  deferred  till  the  approach  of  severe 
frosts,  and  at  the  South  the  crop  may  remain  in  the  ground  till 
wanted  in  the  winter. 

The  Purple-Topped  Swede,  Skirving’s  Swede,  and  Ashcroft’s 
Swede  are  approved  varieties. 

4.  Kohl  Rabi — Brassica  Oleracea . 

In  England  and  Ireland,  where  the  turnip  has,  in  some  places, 
shown  signs  of  degeneracy,  the  Kohl  Rabi  has  been  proposed 
as  a substitute,  and  has  already  come  into  somewhat  extensive 
cultivation.  It  seems  to  possess  all  the  good  qualities  of  the 
turnip,  with  the  addition  of  some  excellences  peculiar  to  itself. 
It  has  been  proved  to  be  perfectly  hardy,  to  stand  severe  frosts 
better,  and  to  keep  in  store  for  a longer  period  than  the  Swedish 
turnip.  It  also  resists  the  attacks  of  the  fly  and  grub.  Its 
feeding  qualities  have  been  fully  tested,  and  all  kinds  of  stock 
are  exceedingly  fond  of  it.  When  fed  to  milch  cows  it  does 
not  impart  that  turnip  taste  to  the  milk  and  butter,  as  is  fre- 
quently the  case  when  cows  are  freely  fed  with  turnips. 

The  average  weight  per  statute  acre  has  been  from  27  to  31 
tons,  of  tops  and  bulbs. 

The  seeds  of  the  Green  and  Purple -Topped  varieties  have 
been  extensively  distributed  through  the  agency  of  the  Patent 
Office,  during  the  past  two  or  three  years.  So  far  as  we  have 
learned,  they  have  fallen  short  of  the  Swedes  in  productiveness 
or  weight  per  acre.  But  in  all  cases  that  have  come  to  our 
knowledge,  the  seed  of  the  Kohl  were  sown  at  the  time  of 


* Allen. 


Farm  Crots 


127 


sowing  the  turnips.  This  is  too  late  for  sowing  Kabi  seed. 
The  Irish  Farmer's  Gazette  says : “ The  seed  is  sown  in  a well- 
prepared  seed-bed;  about  the  end  of  February,  in  drills  about 
a foot  apart ; and  in  May  they  are  transplanted  in  the  field 
(when  the  plants  are  six  or  eight  inches  high),  in  rows  about 
two  feet  asunder,  and  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  rows.” 

5.  The  Carrot — Daucus  Carota . 

The  carrot  is  looked  upon  with  much  favor  as  a field  crop  in 
some  parts  of  the  United  States.  It  is  preferred  by  many 
farmers  to  every  other  vegetable  for  feeding  cattle,  horses,  and 
swine.  A bushel  of  carrots  cut  and  mixed  with  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  oats  is  thought  to  be  equivalent  to  two  bushels  of  oats ; 
and  five  or  six  hundred  bushels  may  easily  be  raised  on  an  acre 
of  good  land.  Rev.  Mr.  Coleman,  of  Massachusetts,  says  that 
he  has  raised  them  at  the  rate  of  more  than  a thousand  bushels 
to  the  acre. 

The  varieties  mostly  used  for  field  culture  are  the  Altringham, 
the  Orange,  and  the  White  Belgian.  The  last-named  is  very 
productive,  and,  growing  high  out  of  ground,  is  more  easily 
harvested  than  the  other  sorts ; but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
considered  below  the  others  in  nutritive  value. 

“ It  is  very  important  to  have  both  the  soil  and  the  manure 
for  carrots  free  from  the  seeds  of  weeds  and  grasses ; the  plants 
in  the  early  stages  of  their  growth  are  small  and  feeble,  which 
makes  it  a slow  and  expensive  process  to  eradicate  the  weeds, 
if  abundant.  Well  manured  sandy,  or  light,  loamy  soils  are 
best  adapted  to  the  carrot  crop.  The  ground  should  be  deeply 
worked,  and  brought  to  a fine  tilth  before  sowing  the  seed. 
For  field  crops,  the  drills  should  be  eighteen  inches  distant;  the 
plants  in  the  rows  should  be  thinned  to  six  or  eight  inches 
apart.  This  4 thinning  out’  is  a matter  too  frequently  neglected. 
We  have  frequently  seen  carrots  growing  so  thickly  that  they 
would  average  a dozen  or  more  plants  to  the  foot ; when  left 
to  grow  in  this  crowded  manner,  the  roots  must  necessarily  bo 
small,  and  the  expense  of  harvesting  greatly  increased.” 


128 


The  Farm. 

6.  The  Paesnep — Pastinaca  Satim. 

This  root  is  nearly  equal  to  the  carrot  in  value,  and  large 
crops  may  he  obtained  on  deep,  rich,  well-pulverized  soil.  The 
best  variety  for  field  culture  is  the  Isle  of  Jersey.  The  cultiva- 
tion is  similar  to  that  of  the  carrot.  The  harvesting  should  he 
deferred  till  spring,  unless  the  roots  may  be  wanted  for  winter’s 
use,  as  they  keep  best  in  the  ground. 

The  parsnep  is  one  of  the  best  of  all  our  table  vegetables, 
and  is  also  excellent  for  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine.  The  leaves 
of  both  parsneps  and  carrots  are  good  for  cattle,  either  green 
or  dried. 

7.  The  Beet  —Beta  Vulgaris. 

The  varieties  most  in  use  for  field  culture  are  the  Sugar  beet 
and  the  Mangold- Wurzel,  of  both  of  which  there  are  several 
sub-varieties. 

Beets  do  well  in  any  soil  of  sufficient  depth  and  fertility,  hut 
they  are  perhaps  most  partial  to  a strong  loam.  If  well  tilled, 
they  will  produce  large  crops  on  a tenacious  clay.  We  have 
raised  at  the  rate  of  800  bushels  per  acre,  on  a stiff  clay,  which 
had  been  well  supplied  with  unfermented  manure.  The  soil 
can  not  he  made  too  rich ; and  for  such  as  are  adhesive,  fresh 
or  unfermented  manures  are  much  the  best. 

The  beet  should  be  planted  in  drills  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
four  inches  apart,  at  the  rate  of  six  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre. 
Cover  about  an  inch.  deep.  The  seed  should  he  early  planted, 
or  as  soon  as  vegetation  will  proceed  rapidly ; but  it  must  first 
be  soaked  by  pouring  soft,  scalding  water  on  it,  allowing  it  to 
cool  to  blood-heat,  and  remain  for  three  or  four  days,  then  roll 
in  plaster  and  drill  it  in.  The  culture  is  similar  to  that  of  car- 
rots and  parsneps. 

As  an  article  of  human  food,  the  beet  is  a universal  favorite. 
Domestic  animals  are  very  fond  of  it,  and  swine  prefer  it  to 
any  other  root  except  the  parsnep ; and  on  no  vegetable  can 
they  be  kept  in  a better  condition. 


129 


Farm  Crops. 

8.  Chinese  Yam — Dioscorea  Batatas. 

This  root  was  introduced  into  France  seven  or  eight  years 
ago,  and  seems  to  have  won  a considerable  degree  of  public 
estimation  there.  It  has  not  had  so  long  a period  of  trial  here, 
but  has  been  experimented  with  more  or  less  in  all  parts  of  the 
United  States,  generally  with  ill  or  indifferent  success.  We  can 
speak  of  it  only  as  an  object  of  experiment. 

The  mode  of  culture  required  by  the  Chinese  yam  is  not  yet 
well  determined.  It  evidently  needs  a deeply  spaded  or  trenched 
soil,  and  probably  should  be  cut  into  sets  and  planted  in  rows 
three  or  four  feet  apart,  and  one  foot  apart  in  the  row,  and 
treated  like  the  sweet  potato,  except  that  it  requires  no  earth- 
ing up.  The  plants  may  be  forwarded  in  a hot  bed  or  in  a cold 
frame  under  glass. 

V.— THE  GRASSES. 

The  grasses  cultivated  for  the  food  of  animals  are  too  nu- 
merous to  admit  of  a description  in  such  a work  as  this.  It  is 
said  that  no  less  than  two  hundred  varieties  are  cultivated  in 
England.  In  this  country  we  make  use  of  fewer  sorts  for  cul- 
tivation ; but  the  number  and  excellence  of  our  natural  grasses 
are  probably  unsurpassed  in  any  quarter  of  the  globe. 

We  will  speak  briefly  of  a few  of  the  leading  species  culti- 
vated among  us,  noting  some  of  their  peculiar  excellences  and 
adaptations. 

1.  Timothy — PJileum  Pratense. 

Allen  says : “ For  cultivation  in  the  northern  portion  of  the 
United  States,  I am  inclined  to  place  the  Timothy  first  in  the 
list  of  the  grasses.  It  is  indigneous  to  this  country,  and  flour- 
ishes in  all  soils  except  such  as  are  wet,  too  light,  dry,  or  sandy ; 
and  it  is  found  in  perfection  on  the  rich  clays  and  clay  loams 
which  lie  between  38°  and  44°  north  latitude.  It  is  a peren- 
nial, easy  of  cultivation,  hardy  and  of  luxuriant  growth,  and  on 
its  favorite  soil  yields  from  one  and  a half  to  two  tons  of  hay 
per  acre  at  one  cutting.” 

It  may  be  sown  either  in  August  or  September  with  the 
6* 


130 


The  Farm. 


winter  grains,  or  in  the  spring.  “ Twelve  quarts  of  seed  pet 
acre  on  a fine  mellow  tilth  are  sufficient ; and  twice  this  quan- 
tity on  a stiff  clay.”  This  is  the  Herds  grass  of  Hew  England. 

2.  The  Smooth-Stalked  Meadow  Grass — Poa  Pratensis. 

This  is  one  of  the  best  of  grasses,  both  for  hay  and  for  pas- 
ture. It  is  a native  species,  and  is  found  almost  everywhere, 
hut  does  not  grow  in  its  greatest  perfection  north  of  the  valley 
of  the  Ohio.  It  is  seen  in  all  its  glory  on  the  fertile  soils  of 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  Every  animal  that  eats  grass  is  fond 
of  it.  “ The  seed  ripens  in  June,  and  is  self-sown  upon  the 
ground  where  the  succeeding  rains  give  it  vitality  and  it  pushes 
out  its  long  slender  leaves  two  feet  in  length,  which  in  autumn 
fall  over  in  thick  winrows,  matting  the  whole  surface  with  a 
luscious  herbage.” 

The  Roughish  Meadow  grass  (P.  trivialis)  has  the  appear- 
ance of  the  smooth  variety,  but  is  rough  to  the  touch,  and  pre- 
fers moist  situations  and  clayey  soils.  This,  also,  is  an  excel- 
lent grass. 

3.  Red  Top — Agrostis  Vulgaris . 

A hardy  and  luxuriant  species,  much  relished  by  cattle,  but 
possessing  only  a moderate  nutritive  value.  It  is  much  culti- 
vated in  some  portions  of  Hew  England  and  elsewhere ; but 
where  better  grasses  will  grow,  this  should  be  rejected.  It  is 
sometimes  called  Foul  Meadow  and  Bent  Grass. 

4.  Tall  Oat  Grass — Arena  Elatior . 

An  early  and  luxuriant  grass,  flourishing  in  a loamy  or 
clayey  soil,  and  making  good  hay.  It  grows  to  the  height  of 
four  or  five  feet  on  good  soils.  It  is  well  suited  to  pasture. 

5.  The  Fesoue  Grasses — Festuca  of  species. 

The  Tall  Fescue  grass  (F.  elatior ),  according  to  some  experi- 
ments made  in  England,  yields  more  nutritive  matter  per  acre, 
when  cut  in  flower,  than  any  other  grass  cut  either  in  flower  or 


Farm  Crops.  131 

seed.  It  is  an  American  grass,  but  has  found  less  favor  at 
home  than  abroad. 

The  Meadow  Fescue  (F.  pratensis) ; the  Spiked  Fescue  (F. 
loleacea) ; the  Purple  Fescue  (F.  rubra) ; and  the  Floating 
Fescue  (F.  Jiuitans ),  are  all  indigenous  grasses  of  fine  qual- 
ities and  great  value. 

6.  Orchard  Grass — Daclylis  Glomerata. 

The  Orchard  or  Cock’s  Foot  grass  is  excellent  for  shaded  sit- 
uations. It  should  be  cut  before  it  is  ripe,  and  will  furnish 
three  or  four  crops  a year.  Twenty  or  thirty  pounds  of  the 
seed  should  be  sown  per  acre.  It  will  grow  in  almost  any 
climate,  being  found  in  this  country  from  the  extreme  north 
to  the  extreme  south. 

7.  The  Egyptian  Grass — Sorghum  Halpense. 

A cane-like  grass  which  grows  in  profusion  in  some  of  the 
Southern  States.  It  is  a superior  stock-sustaining  plant ; but 
as  it  is  difficult  to  remove  when  once  embedded  in  the  soil,  its 
introduction  into  cultivated  fields  is  considered  a great  evil. 

8.  German  Millet — Panicum  Germanicum . 

This  plant,  known  at  the  West  as  Hungarian  grass,  seems  to 
have  been  introduced  into  Iowa  by  a Hungarian  immigrant, 
and  to  have  spread  thence  to  other  parts  of  the  country.  It 
had,  however,  been  previously  cultivated  in  small  quantities 
under  its  proper  name  of  German  Millet.  As  a forage  crop, 
for  the  West,  at  least,  its  value  seems  to  be  well  proved.  It 
has  been  less  extensively  tested  at  the  East. 

An  Iowa  farmer  thus  describes  the  mode  of  cultivation  pur- 
sued in  his  vicinity : 

u We  prepare  the  ground  the  same  as  for  oats,  and  sow  about 
eleven  quarts  to  the  acre  when  we  want  grass ; but  if  seed  is 
the  object,  eight  quarts  to  the  acre.  Good  seed  will  weigh 
fifty  pounds  to  the  bushel.  I will  say  in  general  terms  that 
wherever  a crop  of  Indian  corn  will  grow,  the  Hungarian 


132 


The  Farm. 


grass  will  succeed.  It  loves  warm  weather,  but  it  requires  but 
about  six  weeks  to  mature.  If  cut  green,  it  will  put  out  an 
excellent  second  growth,  making  the  richest  kind  of  pasturage. 
I have  seen,  this  season,  one  plant  that  stood  rather  isolated 
produce  seventy  shoots,  and  each  shoot  produce  a head.  It  is 
a great  thing  to  stool,  or  send  out  suckers ; so  if  you  sow  thin 
or  thick,  you  are  sure  of  a crop.  It  usually  grows  from  three 
to  four  and  a half  feet  high  with  us.  The  best  time  for  sowing 
is  about  the  20th  of  May,  or  when  the  ground  gets  warm,  on 
clean  ground,  harrowed  both  ways. 

“ The  usual  yield  of  this  grass  with  us  is  from  four  to  six  tons 
to  the  acre,  according  to  the  pains  taken  in  its  cultivation  ; but 
the  premium  crop  of  this  county,  as  returned  to  our  last  fall’s 
fair,  was  eight  tons  and  some  two  hundred  pounds  to  the 
measured  acre  of  good,  dry  hay,  suitable  to  put  in  stack,  duly 
sworn  to  by  disinterested  parties,  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
committee,  in  order  to  receive  the  premium.” 

9.  The  Clovers — Trifolium  of  species. 

According  to  botanical  arrangement,  the  clovers  belong 
among  the  legumes , and  not  among  the  grasses  ; but  we  find  it 
more  convenient  to  speak  of  them  in  connection  with  the  other 
common  forage  plants. 

The  Common  Ked  clover  ( T.  pratense ) is  a hardy  and  easily 
cultivated  species,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties.  It 
grows  luxuriantly  on  every  well-drained  soil  of  sufficient 
strength  to  afford  it  nutriment. 

It  may  he  sown  broadcast  either  in  August  or  September,  or 
early  in  the  spring,  with  most  of  the  grains.  Sow  from  ten  to 
twelve  pounds  per  acre  on  well-prepared  loams,  and  from 
twelve  to  sixteen  on  clayey  lands.  It  should  he  very  slightly 
covered.  A top-dressing  of  plaster,  at  the  rate  of  three  or  four 
bushels  to  the  acre,  has  a most  beneficial  and  striking  effect 
upon  this  plant. 

Clover  should  be  cut  after  having  fully  blossomed  and  as- 
sumed a brownish  hue. 


Farm  Crops. 


133 


Southern  Clover  ( T \ medium)  is  a smaller  species  thau 
the  common  Red,  and  matures  earlier.  It  succeeds  better 
on  a light  soil  than  the  latter,  and  should  be  sown  more 
thickly. 

The  White  or  Creeping  clover  (T.  repens ),  of  which  there  are 
several  varieties,  is  a self-propagating  plant,  and  adds  greatly 
to  the  richness  of  many  of  our  pastures,  especially  on  clayey 
soils.  It  is  very  nutritious,  and  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  are  all 
fond  of  it. 

10.  Other  Grasses. 

The  Muskeet  Grass,  found  growing  on  the  plains  of  Mexico 
and  Texas,  is  considered  one  of  the  best  of  the  indigenous 
grasses.  We  have  seen  it  growing  on  the  plantations  of  Lou- 
isiana, where  it  has  been  successfully  transplanted. 

Winter  Grass  is  known  on  the  low,  moist  fertile  soils  of  Mis- 
sissippi and  adjoining  States.  It  springs  up  in  the  autumn, 
growls  all  winter,  and  seeds  in  the  spring.  It  fattens  all  ani- 
mals that  feed  upon  it. 

Grama  {La  Grama , or  the  grass  of  grasses)  is  held  in  the 
highest  estimation  by  the  Mexicans.  It  attains  a medium 
height,  and  is  deemed  the  most  nutritious  of  the  natural  grasses 
in  our  southwestern  frontier  prairies,  in  California,  and  parts 
of  Mexico.  It  grows  on  dry,  hard,  gravelly  soils,  on  side  hills, 
and  on  the  swells  of  the  prairies. 

The  Prairie  Grasses  abound  in  the  Western  prairies,  and  are 
of  great  variety,  according  to  the  latitude  and  circumstances 
under  which  they  are  found.  They  afford  large  supplies  of 
nutritive  food,  both  as  pasturage  and  hay.  They  possess  differ- 
ent merits  for  stock,  but  as  a general  rule  they  are  coarse  when 
they  have  reached  maturity,  and  are  easily  injured  by  the  early 
frosts  of  autumn.  Some  of  the  leguminose  or  wild  pea  vines, 
which  are  frequently  found  among  them,  yield  the  richest 
herbage.  We  are  not  aware  that  any  of  these  grasses  have 
been  cultivated  with  success. 

Dr.  Darlington,  of  Pennsylvania,  gives  the  following  as  tho 


134 


The  Fakm. 


species  of  grasses  most  valuable  in  our  meadows  and  pastures, 
naming  them  in  the  order  of  their  excellence : 

1.  Meadow  or  green  grass  (. Poa  pratensis).  2.  Timothy 
( Phleum  pratense).  3.  Orchard  grass  ( Dactylis  glomerata ). 

4.  Meadow  Fescue  (. Festuca  pratensis).  5.  Blue  grass  {Poa 
compressa).  6.  Ray  grass  {Lolium  perenne ).  7.  Red  top 

{Agrostis  vulgaris).  8.  Sweet-scented  vernal  grass  {A^nthox- 
anthum  odoratum ).* 

# VI. — MISCELLANEOUS  OBJECTS  OF  CULTIVATION. 

1.  Cotton — Gossypium  of  species. 

As  cotton  is  generally  cultivated  on  large  plantations,  and 
does  not  strictly  come  under  the  head  of  farm  crops,  we  shall 
content  ourself  with  a few  words  only  upon  this  grand  object 
of  culture  and  commerce. 

Cotton  can  not  be  profitably  cultivated  north  of  Tennessee. 
It  requires  a dry,  rich  loam  to  • produce  the  largest  and  most 
profitable  crops. 

“ During  the  winter,  the  land  intended  for  planting  should 
be  thrown  up  in  beds  by  turning  several  furrows  together. 
These  beds  may  be  four  feet  from  center  to  center  for  a mod- 
erate quality  of  upland  soil,  and  five  feet  for  the  lowlands. 
But  these  distances  should  be  increased  with  the  increasing 
strength  of  the  soil,  to  seven  and  eight  feet,  and  in  some  in- 
stances even  to  a greater  distance  for  the  strongest  lands. 
These  may  lie  until  the  time  of  planting,  from  20th  of  March  to 
20th  of  April,  when  no  further  danger  from  frost  is  apprehend- 
ed ; then  harrow,  and  with  a light  plow  mark  the  center  of  the 
beds,  and  sow  at  the  rate  of  two  to  five  bushels  per  acre.  A 
drilling-machine  might  be  made  to  answer  this  purpose  better, 
and  save  much  time.  An  excess  of  seed  is  necessary,  to  pro- 
vide for  the  enemies  of  the  plant  and  other  contingencies.  If 
all  the  seed  germinates,  there  will  be  a large  surplus  of  plants, 
which  must  be  removed  by  thinning.  There  is  an  advantage 


* Allen. 


Farm  Crops. 


135 


in  mixing  the  seed,  before  it  is  sown,  with  moistened  ashes  or 
gypsum,  as  it  facilitates  sowing  and  germination.  It  should  be 
buried  about  an  inch  deep,  and  the  earth  pressed  closely  over 
it.” 

Harvesting  is  commenced  when  the  bolls  have  begun  to  ex- 
pand and  the  cotton  is  protruded,  and  is  continued  as  the  bolls 
successively  ripen  and  burst  their  capsules. 

2.  The  Sugar-Cane — SaccJiarum  Officinarum. 

This  is  another  plantation  crop,  and  lies  beyond  the  scope  of 
this  little  book.  It  is  indigenous  both  in  the  Old  and  the  Hew 
World,  but  is  restricted  in  its  cultivation  to  a belt  or  zone  ex- 
tending from  35°  to  40°  on  each  side  of  the  equator.  In  the 
United  States  the  cultivation  can  not  be  profitably  carried  on 
advantageously  higher  than  about  32°. 

3.  Chinese  Sugar-Cane — Sorghum  Saccharatum. 

Although  the  value  of  this  plant  as  an  object  of  general  cul- 
tivation is  not  universally  conceded,  we  think  it  may  be  safely 
set  down  as  worthy  the  farmer’s  attention,  both  as  a forage 
crop  and  for  making  syrup.  Its  habits  and  mode  of  cultivation 
are  similar  to  those  of  Indian  corn.  It  may  be  planted  at  the 
same  time  as  corn,  about  three  feet  apart  each  way,  and  two 
or  three  plants  in  a hill ; or  in  drills  three  feet  apart,  and  the 
plants,  one  in  a place,  two  feet  apart  in  the  row.  When  the 
plants  are  from  six  inches  to  a foot  high,  turn  over  the  earth 
on  each  side  of  the  row  with  a plow  and  afterward  keep  the 
weeds  down  with  the  hoe.  On  good  soil  it  will  grow  from  six 
to  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  high,  furnishing  a very  heavy  and 
nutritious  crop  of  fodder ; and  one  hundred  and  seventy-five 
gallons  of  syrup,  equal  to  the  best  molasses,  and  worth  at  least 
one  dollar  per  gallon,  have  been  made  from  an  acre  of  the  cane, 
and  that  with  very  imperfect  apparatus.  A correspondent  of 
one  of  the  agricultural  journals,  in  closing  a narrative  of  his 
experiments,  says: 

“ The  result,  therefore,  of  my  experiments  lead  me  to  the  con* 


136 


The  Farm. 


elusion  that  the  accounts  heretofore  published,  as  to  the  value 
of  the  Chinese  Sugar-Cane,  are  not  exaggerated ; that  it  may  bo 
grown  upon  almost  any  ordinary  soil,  requiring  no  more  atten- 
tion than  is  profitably  bestowed  upon  a crop  of  Indian  corn ; 
that  as  a soiling  crop  it  is  far  superior  both  in  quantity  and 
quality  to  Indian  corn,  producing  as  a first  crop  more  than  can 
be  obtained  from  any  other  plant  in  cultivation ; and  after  once 
cut,  again  producing  a valuable  crop ; and  that  a superior  arti- 
cle of  syrup  can  be  produced  at  little  cost  or  trouble.” 

An  African  sorgho,  called  Imphee , has  been  experimented 
with  both  in  Europe  and  America,  in  connection  with  the  Chi- 
nese. It  has  the  advantage  of  maturing  earlier,  but  in  refer- 
ence to  its  value  as  a sugar-producing  plant,  in  comparison 
with  the  other,  opinions,  founded  probably  on  imperfect  ex- 
periments, differ  widely.  M.  Yelmarin,  of  Paris,  who  has 
experimented  largely  with  the  various  saccharine  plants,  pro- 
nounces it  greatly  inferior.  It  has  hardly  had  a fair  trial  yet 
in  this  country. 

4.  Broom  Corn — Sorghum  Saccharatum . 

Broom  corn  requires  similar  soil  to  Indian  corn.  A green 
sward  turned  over  late  in  the  fall  is  best.  Well-rotted  horse  or 
sheep  manure  and  wood  ashes  may  be  liberally  scattered  in  the 
drills  or  hills.  A situation  not  subject  to  early  or  late  frosts 
should  be  chosen.  Clayey  lands  are  not  suitable. 

Plant  so  soon  as  danger  from  frosts  will  permit,  in  drills 
three  feet  apart ; or  in  hills  from  two  to  two  and  a half  feet 
apart  each  way,  from  twelve  to  fifteen  seeds  in  a hill,  thinning 
out  to  ten  plants  at  the  first  hoeing.  The  after-culture  consists 
in  frequent  stirring  of  the  soil  with  a light  plow  or  cultivator, 
and  keeping  the  crop  clear  of  weeds  with  the  hoe. 

“ Break  the  tops  before  fully  ripe,  or  when  the  seed  is  a lit- 
tle past  the  milk ; or  if  frost  appears,  then  immediately  after 
it.  This  is  done  by  bending  down  the  tops  of  two  rows  toward 
each  other  for  the  convenience  of  cutting  afterward.  They 
should  be  broken  some  fourteen  inches  below  the  brush,  and 


Farm  Ckopb.  137 

allowed  to  hang  till  fully  ripe,  when  they  may  he  cut  and  car- 
ried under  cover,  and  spread  till  entirely  dry.” 

5.  Flax — Linum  Vsitatissimum. 

A deep,  rich  loam  or  alluvial  soil  is  best  for  flax.  The  proper 
fertility  should  be  secured  by  a surplus  of  manure  applied  to  a 
previous  crop,  as  fresh  manures  are  injurious  to  it.  It  is  sown 
broadcast,  on  well-prepared  soil,  at  the  rate  of  from  sixteen  to 
thirty  quarts  when  wanted  for  seed,  and  two  bushels  when 
cultivated  for  the  fiber. 

6.  Hemp — Cannabis  Sativa. 

This  is  a plant  of  the  nettle  tribe,  and  came  originally  from 
India.  The  Russians  are  at  present  its  chief  cultivators;  but 
in  our  Western  States,  and  especially  in  Kentucky,  it  is  begin- 
ning to  be  widely  raised. 

A rich  loam  or  a vegetable  mold  suits  the  hemp  plant.  The 
ground  should  be  carefully  prepared  by  plowing  and  harrow- 
ing till  it  is  perfectly  pulverized,  smooth,  and  even.  The  seeds 
are  sown  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  a bushel  and  a half  to  the 
acre,  and  plowed  or  harrowed  in.  Plowing  is  best  on  ground 
liable  to  bake.  In  Kentucky  they  sow  any  time  from  the  first 
of  April  to  the  tenth  of  May.  It  is  desirable  to  sow  just  before 
a rain. 

For  a full  description  of  the  mode  of  cultivation,  harvesting, 
and  preparing  hemp,  as  practiced  in  Kentucky,  see  the  u Amer- 
ican Farmer’s  Encyclopedia;”  article  “Hemp.” 

7.  The  Hop — Humulus  Lupulus. 

The  hop  is  found  growing  spontaneously  on  the  banks  of 
rivers  and  brooks  in  various  parts  of  this  country. 

The  best  soil  for  the  cultivation  of  hops  is  a sandy  loam, 
rather  low  and  moist ; but  they  will  grow  on  soils  very  differ- 
ent from  this.  New  lands  are  to  be  preferred. 

The  following  is  the  mode  of  cultivation  recommended  by 
Allen  in  the  u American  Farm  Book :” 


138 


The  Farm. 


“ If  the  land  lias  been  long  in  use,  it  should  be  dressed  with 
a compost  of  alkaline  manures;  or,  what  is  nearly  equivalent, 
with  fresh  barn-yard  manures,  on  a previously  well-hoed  crop, 
and  made  perfectly  free  from  all  weeds,  and  deeply  plowed 
and  harrowed.  Then  mark  out  the  ground  at  intervals  of  six 
feet  each  way  and  plant  in  the  intersection  of  the  furrows,  and 
unless  the  ground  be  already  rich  enough,  place  three  or  four 
shovels  of  compost  in  each  hill.  The  planting  is  done  with  the 
new  roots  taken  from  the  old  hills,  which  are  laid  bare  by  the 
plow.  Each  root  should  be  six  or  eight  inches  long,  and  must 
contain  two  or  more  eyes,  one  to  form  the  root,  and  the  other 
the  vine.  Six  plants  are  put  in  a hill,  all  of  which  should  be 
within  the  compass  of  about  a foot,  and  covered  to  a depth  of 
five  inches,  leaving  the  ground  level  when  planted.  The  first 
season  the  intermediate  spaces  between  the  hills  may  be  planted 
with  corn  or  potatoes,  and  the  ground  carefully  cleared  of 
weeds,  and  frequently  stirred.  No  poles  are  necessary  the  first 
year,  as  the  product  will  not  repay  the  cost.  The  ground 
should  receive  a dressing  of  compost  the  following  spring,  and 
the  plants  be  kept  well  hoed  and  clean. 

“ Poles  may  be  prepared  at  the  rate  of  two  or  three  to  each 
hill,  twenty  to  twenty-four  feet  long,  and  selected  from  a 
straight,  smooth  undergrowth  of  tough  and  durable  wood, 
from  four  to  seven  inches  diameter  at  the  butt  end.  These  are 
sharpened  and  firmly  set  with  an  iron  bar,  or  socket  bar  with 
a wooden  handle  in  such  a position  as  will  allow  the  fullest 
effect  of  the  sun  upon  the  hills  or  roots.  When  the  plants 
have  run  to  the  length  of  three  or  four  feet  in  the  spring,  train 
them  around  the  poles,  winding  in  the  direction  of  the  sun’s 
course,  and  fasten  below  the  second  or  third  set  of  leaves, 
where  there  is  sufficient  strength  of  vine  to  sustain  themselves. 
They  may  be  confined  with  rushes,  tough  grass,  or  more  easily 
with  woolen  yarn.  This  operation  is  needed  again  in  a few 
days,  to  secure  such  as  may  have  got  loose  by  the  winds  01 
other  causes,  and  to  train  up  the  new  shoots. 

“The  gathering  of  hops  takes  place  when  they  have  acquired 


Fakm  Crops. 


139 


a strong  scent,  at  which  time  the  seed  becomes  firm  and 
brown,  and  the  lowest  leaves  begin  to  change  color.  This  pre- 
cedes the  frosts  in  September.  The  vines  must  first  be  cut  at 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  the  poles  pulled  up  and  laid  in 
convenient  piles,  when  they  may  be  stripped  of  the  hops, 
which  are  thrown  into  large,  light  baskets ; or  the  poles  may 
be  laid  on  long,  slender  boxes  with  handles  at  each  end  (to  ad- 
mit of  being  carried  by  two  persons),  and  as  the  hops  are 
stripped  they  fall  into  the  box.  Be  careful  to  select  them  free 
from  leaves,  stems,  and  dirt. 

“ After  gathering  in  the  fall,  the  hops  should  be  hilled  or 
covered  with  compost,  and  all  the  vines  removed.  The  follow- 
ing spring,  when  the  ground  is  dry,  the  surface  is  scraped  from 
the  hill,  and  additional  compost  is  added,  when  a plow  is  run 
on  four  sides,  as  near  as  possible  without  injury  to  the  plants. 
All  the  running  roots  are  laid  bare  and  cut  with  a sharp  knife 
within  two  or  three  inches  of  the  main  root,  and  the  latter  are 
trimmed,  if  spreading  too  far.  It  is  well  to  break  or  twist 
down  the  first  shoots  and  allow  those  which  succeed  to  run, 
as  they  are  likely  to  be  stronger  and  more  productive.  Cut- 
ting should  be  avoided,  unless  in  a sunny  day,  as  the  profuse 
bleeding  injures  them.  The  poles  will  keep  much  longer,  if 
laid  away  under  cover  till  again  wanted  the  following  spring. 
Drying  may  be  done  by  spreading  the  hops  thinly  in  the  shade 
and  stirring  them  often  enough  to  prevent  heating ; but  when 
there  is  a large  quantity,  they  can  be  safely  cured  only  in  a 
kiln.” 


140 


The  Farm. 


IX. 

THE  ORCHARD. 

There  hang  the  red-cheeked  apples,  blushing  in  the  aun. — Potuva. 

I. — “ THE  GARDEN.” 


O' 


N-  a previous  number  of  tills  series  of  man- 
uals (“The  Garden”)  we  have  devoted  a 
long  chapter  to  the  subject  of  fruits,  giving 
instructions  for  planting,  grafting,  cultiva' 
tion,  and  gathering ; with  lists  of  the  best  varieties, 
etc.  As  the  larger  portion  of  our  readers  will  possess 
that  volume  also,  it  will  not  be  profitable  to  go  over 
the  same  ground  again  here ; but  some  additional  hints  on  sev- 
eral points  not  sufficiently  dwelt  upon  in  the  work  referred  to 
will  be  useful  in  this. 


II.— LAYING  OUT  ORCHARDS. 

We  copy  from  Tucker’s  “Annual  Register  of  Rural  Affairs,” 
for  1857,  the  following  useful  directions  for  laying  out  orchards : 
We  have  often  observed  a good  deal  of  inconvenience  and 
perplexity  in  measuring  off  and  laying  out  orchards,  from  a 
want  of  accuracy  at  the  commencement.  If  the  rows  are  begun 
crooked,  stake  after  stake  may  be  altered,  without  being  able 
to  form  straight  lines,  and  with  only  an  increase  of  the  confu- 
sion. If  the  first  tree,  in  a row  of  fifty,  be  placed  only  six 


The  Orchard. 


141 


inches  out  of  the  way,  and  be  followed  as  a guide  for  the  rest, 
the  last  one  will  deviate  fifty  times  six  inches,  or  twenty  -five 
feet  from  a right  line,  even  if  the  first  error  is  not  repeated. 
We  have  seen  large  apple  orchards  with  rows  nearly  as  crooked 
as  this.  To  say  nothing  of  the  deformed  appearance  to  the  eye, 
they  proved  exceedingly  inconvenient  every  time  the  crooked 
space  between  the  rows  was  plowed,  and  every  time  the  ground 


was  planted  and  cultivated  with  crops 

in  rows. 

a 

C 

d 

e 

f 

V 

h 

i 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

♦ 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

a 

b 

c 

d 

e 

/ 

g 

n 

i 

Fig.  1.- 

—Common  oe 

Square  Arrangement. 

The  most  simple  and  convenient  arrangements  for  orchards 
in  all  ordinary  cases  is  in  squares,  as  shown  in  fig.  1.  But 
planters  are  often  puzzled  to  know  how  to  lay  out  such  orchards, 
with  trees  at  equal  distances  throughout,  and  in  perfectly 
straight  rows.  The  easiest  and  most  successful  mode  is  first  to 
measure  off  one  side  along  the  boundary,  with  a chain  or  tape- 
line  (a  chain  is  best),  and  drive  in  a stake  perpendicularly  at 
equal  distances  (say  two  rods  or  33  feet),  in  a straight  line , and 
at  a proper  distance  from  the  fence  for  the  first  row  of  trees. 
Then  measure  off  each  end  in  the  same  way ; and  between  the 
last  two  stakes  in  these  end  rows,  form  another  line  of  stakes 
like  the  first,  which  will  be  parallel  and  opposite  to  it.  The 
more  accurately  the  measuring  is  done,  the  less  labor  will  be 
required  in  rectifying  small  errors — no  stake  should  stand  half 
an  inch  out  of  a straight  line.  These  rows  are  represented  by 
the  letters  a,  &,  c,  d , 6,  f g , A,  i.  Then  measure  off  the  distance 
between  a and  a,  driving  in  a small  stake  or  peg  at  each  dis* 


142 


The  Farm. 


tance  of  two  rods,  and  then  in  the  same  wa y between  % \ t 
etc.  If  accurately  done,  these  will  all  form  perfectly  straight 
rows.  The  holes  may  then  be  dug  without  the  least  difficulty 
or  embarrassment,  and  the  trees  set  out.  But  a difficulty 
arises,  as  the  stakes  must  be  removed  in  digging  the  holes ; thi? 
is  at  once  obviated  by  the  plan  here  proposed,  by  placing  the 
tree  in  a line  with  the  row  of  stakes  on  one  side,  and  with  the 
newly-set  trees  on  the  other,  as  the  holes  are  successively  dug 
and  the  trees  set. 

These  directions  may  seem  quite  simple,  but  from  want  of 
being  generally  understood,  a great  many  crooked  lines  of  trees 
are  seen  through  the  country. 

The  second  mode  of  arranging  trees  is  in  the  old  quincunx 
form  (fig  2),  which  is  nothing  more  than  a series  of  squares  laic 
off  diagonally,  and  has  no  special  advantage  to  recommend  if 
except  novelty. 

****** 


****** 

******* 

Fig.  2. — Old  Quincunx  Obdeb. 


The  hexagonal  or  modern  quincunx  (fig.  3)  possesses  two  im- 
portant advantages.  One  is  its  more  picturesque  appearance, 

********* 


********** 

********* 

********** 

********* 

Fig.  8. — Hexagonal  ob  Modebn  Quincunx. 

and  its  consequent  fitness  for  proximity  to  ornamental  planta- 
tions ; and  the  other  is  its  greater  economy  of  space,  as  the 


The  Oechakd. 


143 


trees  are  more  evenly  distributed  over  the  ground.  This  is 
shown  in  fig.  4,  where  each  tree  stands  in  the  center  of  a circle, 
surrounded  at  equal  distances  by  six  other  trees,  and  each  single 
circle  leaves  but  little  vacant  space  beyond  it.  If  cultivated 
with  horses,  the  furrows  may  be  drawn  in  three  different  direc- 
tions, instead  of  only  two,  as  in  the  square  arrangement. 

One  principal  reason  why  the  hexagonal  mode  is  so  little 
adopted,  is  the  supposed  difficulty  in  laying  out  the  ground^ 
But  like  many  other  apparent  difficulties,  it  becomes  very  sim- 
ple and  easy  when  once  understood. 

To  lay  off  a piece  of  ground  for  this  purpose,  measure  off 
one  side  of  the  field  at  equal  distances,  as  already  described  for 
squares,  as  at  &,  5,  c,  d , e,  fig.  4.  These  distances  must  be  the 
distance  apart  at  which  the  trees  are  to  stand,  because  they 
form  the  sides  of  the  equilateral  triangles  into  which  the  whole 
o f a 


b 


<3 


d 


6 

Fig.  4. 

ground  becomes  divided.  The  next  thing  is  to  find  the  dis- 
tances, a,  f g , for  the  line  of  trees  at  right  angles  to  the  first- 


144 


The  Farm. 


mentioned  row.  An  arithmetician  will  easily  determine  this, 
for  the  triangle,  b a f being  a right  one,  the  square  of  b a 
(which  is  33  feet)  subtracted  from  the  square  of  b f (which  is 
66  feet)  will  leave  the  square  of  a /,  the  roof  of  which  extracted 
will  give  the  distances  of  /,  / J <7,  etc.,  which  is  57  feet  and  half 
an  inch.  Divide  this  and  the  opposite  side  of  the  field,  there- 
fore, into  distances  of  57  feet  and  half  an  inch,  and  the  side 
opposite  the  first,  at  33  feet  distances,  and  proceed  to  stake  off 
all  intermediate  intersections,  as  described  for  squares.  If  the 
distances  are  less  than  33  feet,  as  they  would  he  for  any  other 
kind  of  fruit-trees,  a corresponding  proportion  is  of  course  to 
be  taken,  and  which  is  easily  determined  as  above. 

III.— SOIL  AND  SITUATION. 

Downing  says  that  strong  loams,  by  which  is  meant  loams 
with  only  just  sufficient  sand  to  render  them  friable  and  easily 
worked,  are,  on  the  whole,  by  far  the  best  for  fruit  in  this 
country.  The  trees  do  not  come  into  bearing  so  soon  as  on  a 
light,  sandy  soil,  but  they  bear  larger  crops,  are  less  liable  to 
disease,  and  are  much  longer  lived.  Clayey  loams,  when  well 
drained , are  good,  and  trees  growing  on  them  are  generally 
free  from  insects. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  any  precise  rules  in  reference  to  aspect; 
Good  orchards  may  be  found  in  all  aspects ; but  a gentle  slope 
to  the  southwest  is  generally  to  be  preferred  to  any  other. 
Where  fruit  is  very  liable  to  he  killed  by  late  spring  frosts,  and 
the  season  is  long  and  warm  enough  to  ripen  it  in  any  exposure, 
planting  on  the  north  sides  of  hills  is  practiced  with  advantage. 
Deep  valleys  with  small  streams  of  water  should  be  avoided, 
as  the  cold  air  settles  down  in  such  places,  and  frosts  are  apt  to 
prove  fatal ; hut  the  borders  of  large  rivers  and  lakes  are 
favorable  for  orchards,  as  the  climate  is  rendered  milder  by  the 
presence  of  large  bodies  of  water. 


The  Okchaed. 


145 


IV.— PLANTING  AND  CULTIVATING  AN  OECHARD. 

At  the  risk  of  repeating  in  part  what  has  already  been  pub- 
lished in  “The  Garden,”  we  will  add  a hint  or  two  under  this 
head. 

The  first  thing  is  to  prepare  the  ground  by  underdraining  (if 
it  require  it,  as  most  land  does),  subsoiling,  or  trench  plowing, 
harrowing,  manuring,  etc. 

Choose  sound,  healthy  trees  for  planting,  and  set  them  out 
carefully,  as  directed  in  u The  Garden.”  Apple-trees  should  bo 
thirty  feet  apart  in  orchard  culture.  Set  the  same  kind  in  rows 
together.  This  will  facilitate  the  gathering  of  the  fruit,  and 
improve  the  appearance  of  the  orchard. 

“It  is  an  indispensable  requisite  in  all  young  orchards  to 
keep  the  ground  mellow  and  loose  by  cultivation ; at  least  for 
the  first  few  years,  until  the  trees  are  well  established.  In- 
deed, of  two  adjoining  orchards,  one  planted  and  kept  in  grass, 
and  the  other  plowed  for  the  first  five  years,  there  will  be  an 
incredible  difference  in  favor  of  the  latter.  Not  only  will  these 
trees  show  a rich,  dark,  luxuriant  foliage,  and  clean,  smooth 
stems,  while  those  neglected  will  have  a sickly  look,  but  the 
size  of  the  trees  in  the  cultivated  orchard  will  be  treble  that  of 
the  others  at  the  end  of  this  time,  and  a tree  in  one  will  be 
ready  to  bear  an  abundant  crop  before  the  other  has  commenced 
yielding  a peck  of  good  fruit.  Fallow  crops  are  best  for  or- 
chards— potatoes,  beets,  carrots,  bush  beans,  and  the  like ; but 
whatever  crops  may  be  grown,  it  should  be  constantly  borne  in 
mind  that  the  roots  of  the  tree  require  the  sole  occupancy  of 
the  ground,  so  far  as  they  extend,  and  therefore  that  an  area 
of  more  than  the  diametv  of  the  head  of  the  tree  should  be 
kept  clean  of  crops,  weeds,  and  grass.”* 

To  keep  your  trees  in  a healthy,  bearing  state,  regular  ma- 
nuring is  requisite.  They  exhaust  the  soil,  like  any  other  crop. 


Downing. 

7 


146 


The  Farm. 


Top-dressings  of  marl,  or  mild  lime,  may  alternate  with  barn- 
yard manure,  muck  composts,  etc. 

To  prevent  the  attacks  of  the  apple-borer,  place  about  the 
trunks  early  in  the  spring  a small  mound  of  ashes  or  lime. 
Nursery  trees  may  be  protected  by  washing  the  stems  in  May, 
quite  down  to  the  ground,  with  a solution  of  two  pounds  of 
potash  in  eight  quarts  of  water. 

Y.-THE  PROFITS  OF  APPLE  CULTURE. 

“ There  is  no  question  of  the  propriety  and  necessity  of  the 
farmer  planting  apples  enough  to  supply  abundantly  his  own 
table  with  the  best  of  this  fruit  through  the  whole  year ; but 
further  than  this,  we  require  to  know  whether  a large  extent 
of  land  may  be  usefully  applied  to  raising  appjes  for  sale ; and 
about  what  returns  may  be  expected  from  such  orchards,  with 
good  management;  and  what  ‘good  management’  is. 

“ There  are  some  varieties,  which,  although  possessing  supe- 
rior qualities  for  home  use,  and  therefore  necessary  in  the  family 
orchard,  are  not  salable,  and,  of  course,  worthless  for  market- 
ing. A fruit  for  sale  must  at  least  be  fair  and  good  looking ; it 
ought , also,  to  be  of  fine  quality,  to  bring  the  best  price;  it 
must  also  be  a sure  and  good  bearer,  and  one  that  keeps  long 
enough  to  insure  carriage  to  market,  and  a reasonable  period 
for  selling.  We  find  among  all  the  sorts  which  are  known  to 
our  nurserymen  and  orchardists,  that  there  are  few  that  havr 
all  these  qualifications  to  such  an  extent  that  they  can  safely  be 
recommended.  A close  inquiry  will  show  that,  in  all  mixed 
orchards,  the  profit  has  been  derived  from  a very  few  sorts. 
Other  kinds  are  found  to  yield  some  superior  specimens,  and  to 
be  well  worth  raising  for  one’s  own  satisfaction,  but,  so  far  as 
money  is  concerned,  the  soil  would  be  more  profitably  employed 
if  planted  with  other  crops. 

“ Soil  and  situation  fit  for  an  apple  orchard  must  always  be 
valuable  for  other  purposes ; and  as  none  but  the  best  of  lands 
can  be  depended  upon,  the  value  of  such  lands  is  consequently 
high.  We  are  safe  in  assuming  that  land  fit  for  such  use,  ia 


The  Orchard. 


147 


Western  New  York,  is  worth,  on  an  average,  one  hundred  dol- 
lars per  acre,  the  annual  rent  of  whioh  should  be  at  least  ten 
dollars  per  acre. 

“This  is  more  than  would  generally  he  realized  net  profit 
from  the  crops  for  some  years  after  the  planting  of  an  orchard 
upon  it ; and  at  the  end  of  ten  years  (at  which  time  we  might 
presume  the  trees  to  he  in  a hearing  state),  there  would  he  a 
balance  due  from  the  orchard  to  the  planter.  After  this  time, 
the  crops  from  the  orchard  should  not  be  reckoned  worth  much, 
as  the  trees  will  occupy  the  whole  soil  with  their  roots,  and  the 
sun  and  air  with  their  branches. 

“ Ten  years  from  planting,  Baldwin  and  Rhode  Island  Green- 
ing apple-trees  can  be  relied  upon  to  bear  about  three  barrels 
per  tree,  each  hearing  year,  which  occurs  each  alternate  year 
with  the  Baldwin,  and  generally  so  with  the  Greening.  This 
gives  us  sixty  barrels  of  fine  winter  apples  per  year,  from  trees 
planted  two  rods  apart,  or  forty  trees  per  acre.  The  whole 
annual  expense  of  cultivation,  and  the  gathering  and  barreling, 
will  scarcely  amount  to  twenty-five  dollars,  leaving  the  net 
proceeds,  if  sold  at  one  dollar  per  barrel,  about  thirty-five  dol- 
lars per  acre.  This  sum  per  acre  will  soon  repay  any  balance 
due  the  planter,  and  the  rapidly  increasing  produce  of  the  trees, 
for  many  years,  will  satisfy  any  reasonable  man  of  the  expedi- 
ency of  planting  large  orchards,  where  the  conditions  of  success 
are  observed ; hut  it  will  readily  he  seen  that  an  orchard  of  any 
but  the  best  varieties  will  not  pay  interest  and  care. 

“It  is  important  that  the  fruit-grower  should  base  his  ex- 
pectations entirely  upon  the  results  to  be  derived  from  a series 
of  years , and  not  from  any  less  period  of  time ; otherwise  he 
will  be  found  wide  from  the  truth.”* 


* “ Bural  Annual.” 


149 


APPENDIX. 


A. 

MEASUKING  LAND. 

Farmers  often  desire  to  lay  off  small  portions  of  land  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
perimenting with  manures,  crops,  etc. ; but  sometimes  find  difficulty  in  doing 
It  correctly,  for  the  lack  of  a few  simple  rules.  The  following  table  and  ac- 
companying explanation,  which  we  copy  from  the  New  England  Farmer 
carefully  studied,  will  make  the  whole  matter  perfectly  clear. 

ONE  ACRE  CONTAINS 

160  square  rods ; 4,840  square  yards ; 43,560  square  feet 

ONE  ROD  CONTAINS 

80.25  square  yards ; 272.25  square  feet 
One  square  yard  contains  nine  square  feet 

THE  SIDE  OP  A SQUARE  TO  CONTAIN 

One  acre 208.71  feet 12.65  rods 64  pace*. 

One-half  acre 147.58  “ 8.94  “ 45  “ 

One-third  acre 120.50  “ 7.30  “ 37  “ 

One-fourth  acre 104.86  “ 6.32  “ 32  “ 

One-eighth  acre 73.79  “ 4.47  “ 22*  ** 


208.71  feet 


150 


Appendix 


It  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  plan  that  a practice  sometimes  followed 
by  farmers  is  very  erroneous ; if  the  side  of  a square  containing  one  acre  mea- 
sures 208.71  feet,  one  half  that  length  will  not  make  a square  containing  on© 
half  an  acre,  but  only  one  fourth  an  acre,  and  one  third  the  length  of  line  will 
inclose  a square  of  one  ninth  an  acre,  and  one  fourth  the  line,  squared,  will 
contain  one  sixteenth  an  acre,  and  so  on. 


B. 

HOW  TO  ESTIMATE  CROPS  PER  ACRE. 

A friend  communicates  the  following  method  of  making  an  estimate  of  the 
yield  per  acre  of  a growing  crop,  of  wheat,  rye,  oats,  or  barley,  which  he  says 
has  been  found  correct  in  England.  As  it  seems  easy  of  application,  and  ap- 
proximately correct,  we  give  the  plan,  and  hope  it  will  be  tried  at  the  next 
harvest-time. 

Frame  together  four  light  sticks,  measuring  exactly  a foot  square  inside,  and, 
with  this  in  hand,  walk  into  the  field  and  select  a spot  of  fair  average  yield, 
and  lower  the  frame  square  over  as  many  heads  as  it  will  inclose,  and  shell  out 
the  heads  thus  inclosed  carefully,  and  weigh  the  grain.  It  is  fair  to  presume 
that  the  product  will  be  the  48,560th  part  of  an  acre’s  produce.  To  prove  it, 
go  through  the  field,  and  make  ten  or  twenty  similar  calculations,  and  estimate 
by  the  mean  of  the  whole  number  of  results.  It  will  certainly  enable  a farmer 
to  make  a closer  calculation  of  what  a field  will  produce,  than  he  can  do  by 
guessing. — New  York  Tribune . 


0. 

NUMBER  OF  PLANTS  PER  ACRE. 

NUMBER  OF  PLANTS  OR  TREES  THAT  CAN  BE  PLANTED  ON  AN  ACRE  OF  GROUND, 


AT  THE  FOLLOWING  DISTANCES  APART,  IN  FEET. 


Distances  apart. 

No.  of  Plants. 

Distances  apart. 

No.  of  Plants* 

1 

byl  

7 by  7 

It 

14 

19,360 

8 

“ 8 

680 

2 

1 

9 

“ 9 

537 

2 

2 

10,890 

10 

“ 10 

435 

24 

24 

6,969 

11 

“ 11 

8 

u 

1 

14,520 

12 

“ 12 

302 

8 

2 

13 

“ 13 

257 

6 

3 

4,8 10 

14 

“ 14 

222 

84 

34 

3,555 

15 

“ 15 

198 

4 

1 

10,890 

16 

“ 16 

170 

4 

« 

2 

5,445 

17 

“ 17 

150 

4 

3 

3,630 

18 

“ 18 

134 

4 

4 

2,722 

19 

“ 19 

120 

44 

It 

4i 

2,151 

20 

“ 20 

108 

5 

It 

1 

24 

“ 24 

75 

5 

u 

2 

4,356 

25 

“ 25 

69 

5 

8 

27 

“ 27 

59 

5 

4 

2,178 

30 

“ 30 

48 

5 

5 

1,742 

40 

“ 40 

54 

54 

1,417 

50 

“ 50 

IT 

6 

6 

1,210 

60 

“ 60 

12 

«4 

u 

64 

1,031 

66 

“ 66 

Appendix.  151 

Multiply  the  distances  into  each  other,  and  divide  it  by  the  square  feet  in  an 
acre,  or  43,560,  and  the  quotient  is  the  number  of  plants. 


D. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASUEES. 


WEIGHT  OF  GRAIN,  ETC. 


ARTICLES. 

j New  York. 

6 

5 

Pennsylvania.  | 

Indiana.  | 

j Wisconsin. 

03 

£ 

c 

Illinois. 

j Michigan. 

Connecticut.  | 

I 

1 

3 

j Rhode  Island.  J 

Kentucky. 

New  Jersey,  j 

j Vermont.  j 

Missouri.  j 

Canada.  j 

Wheat,  lb 

60 

60 

60 

60 

6'» 

60 

60 

60 

56 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

Eye 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

54 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

Corn 

58 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

52 

56 

Oats 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

35 

32 

32 

28 

30 

33 

30 

32 

m 

34 

Barley 

48 

48 

47 

48 

48 

48 

44 

48 

46 

48 

48 

46 

m 

48 

Buckwheat 

48 

48 

50 

42 

52 

40 

42 

45 

46 

52 

50 

46 

m 

48 

Clover-seed 

60 

64 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

64 

m 

60 

Timothy-seed . . 

44 

42 

45 

45 

m 

m 

45 

m 

48 

Flax-seed 

55 

56 

56 

56 

m 

m 

56 

55 

m 

56 

Hemp-seed 

44 

44 

44 

Blue-grass  seed. 

14 

14 

14 

Apples,  dried . . 

22 

25 

28 

24 

28 

22 

Peaches,  dried. 

32 

33 

28 

33 

28 

22 

Coarse  salt 

56 

50 

85 

50 

50 

70 

50 

50 

56 

Fine  salt 

56 

50 

62 

50 

50 

70 

50 

50 

56 

Potatoes 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

Peas 

60 

60 

60 

Beans  

62 

56 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

Castor  beans . . . 

46 

46 

46 

Onions 

57 

57 

57 

50 

50 

Corn  meal 

50 

50 

Minpral 

1 " 

70 

A law  of  New  York,  in  force  at  the  present  time,  adopts  the  United  States 
bushel  of  measure , viz. : 2150.42  cubic  inches  per  bushel,  1075.21  half  bushel ; 
and  the  wine  gallon,  231  cubic  inches. 

To  reduce  cubic  feet  to  bushels,  struck  measure,  divide  the  cubic  feet  by  56, 
and  multiply  by  45. 

BOX  MEASURES. 

Farmers  and  market  gardeners  will  find  a series  of  box  measures  very  use- 
ful ; and  they  can  readily  be  made  by  any  one  who  understands  the  two-foot 
rule,  and  can  handle  the  saw  and  the  hammer.  The  following  measurements, 
It  will  be  seen,  vary  slightly  from  the  United  States  bushel  adopted  by  some  of 
the  States,  but  are  sufficiently  accurate  for  all  ordinary  purposes : 

A box  16  by  16£  inches  square,  and  8 inches  deep,  will  contain  a bushel, 
2150.4  cubic  inches,  each  inch  in  depth  holding  one  gallon. 

A box  24  by  11.2  inches  square,  and  8 inches  deep,  will  also  contain  a bushel 
or  215(».4  cubic  inches,  each  in  depth  holding  one  gallon.  A box  12  by  11.2 
inches  square,  an  1 8 inches  deep,  will  contain  half  a bushel,  or  1075.2  cubio 
inches,  each  inch  in  depth  holding  half  a gallon. 


152 


Appendix 


A box  8 by  8.4  inches  square,  and  8 inches  deep,  will  contain  half  a peck,  of 
298.8  cubic  inches.  The  gallon,  dry  measure. 

A box  4 by  4 inches  square,  and  4.2  inches  deep,  will  contain  one  quart,  or 
67.2  cubic  inches. 

WEIGHT  PER  CUBIC  FOOT. 


Weights  of  a Cubic  Foot  of  various  Substances,  from  which  the  Bulk  of  a Load 
of  one  Ton  may  be  easily  calculated. 


Cast  iron 450  lbs. 

Water 62  14 

White  pine,  seasoned,  about . . 80  “ 

White  oak,  “ “ 52  “ 

Loose  earth,  about 95  u 


Common  soil,  compact,  about..  124  “ 

Clay,  about 185  “ 

Clay  with  stones,  about. ..  • . . .160  “ 
Brick,  about 125  M 


Bulk  of  a Ton  of  different  Substances. 

28  cubic  feet  of  sand,  18  cubic  feet  of  earth,  or  17  cubic  feet  of  clay,  make  a 
ton.  18  cubic  feet  of  gravel  or  earth,  before  digging,  make  27  cubic  feet  when 
dug ; or  the  bulk  is  increased  as  three  to  two.  Therefore,  in  filling  a drain  two 
feet  deep  above  the  tile  or  stones,  the  earth  should  be  heaped  up  a foot  above 
the  surface,  to  settle  even  with  it,  when  the  earth  is  shoveled  loosely  in. 


E. 

UNPROFITABLE  FARMING. 

Manure  is  a necessary  application,  in  order  to  bring  an  impoverished  soil 
Into  a productive  state.  Nothing  is  more  certain,  all  agree.  And  yet  how 
much  of  the  unprofitable  farming  of  the  country  results  from  the  attempt  to 
grow  crops  on  worn-out  soils  without  manure ! Plant  corn  on  such  land— the 
crop  is  a meager  one,  both  from  want  of  strength  in  the  soil  to  grow  it,  and 
length  of  the  season  to  mature  it.  A rich  or  well-manured  soil  will  ripen  this 
crop  weeks  earlier  than  a poor  one.  An  acre  of  land,  rich,  deeply  tilled, 
planted  in  good  season,  and  thoroughly  and  cleanly  cultivated,  will  produce 
more  corn  than  five  acres  poor,  shallow-plowed,  late-planted,  and  half-culti- 
vated, and  at  perhaps  one  half  the  expense  of  the  latter. 

Stagnant  water,  either  in  or  upon  the  soil,  is  another  cause  of  unprofitable 
farming.  A soil  which  has  no  escape  or  outlet  for  the  water  which  falls  upon 
it  save  evaporation,  can  not  be  made  to  produce  a paying  crop.  In  a dry  sea- 
son it  is  baked  and  hard— in  a wet  one  it  is  often  flooded  with  stagnant  water, 
and  is  never  in  a condition  very  favorable  to  the  growth  of  cultivated  crops, 
however  well  suited  it  may  be  to  the  production  of  wild  grass,  flag,  and  rushes. 
And  partially  drained  land  of  this  character  is  little  better.  Flooded  in  spring, 
the  water  passes  off  but  slowly ; nothing  can  be  done  upon  it  until  the  “ sub- 
siding of  the  waters,”  which,  as  they  must  in  great  part  go  cloudward,  is  a 
tedious  process. 

Poor  manure— made  so  by  exposure  and  leaching  while  yet  in  the  yard— is 
another  scurce  of  loss  to  the  farmer.  The  contents  of  the  barn-yard  are  gen- 
erally dignified  with  the  name  of  manure ; even  if  they  consist  of  little  more 
than  a leached  mass  of  straw  and  excrement,  the  real  strength  of  which  has 
long  ago  passed  off  into  some  stream,  or  floated  down  the  roadside  ditch,  and 


Appendix 


153 


Into  some  provident  neighbor’s  field,  it  is  still  “manure,”  and  is  carted  to  the 
field  and  offered  to  the  crop,  with  the  expectation  that  it  will  find  therein  nu- 
triment, and  the  material  for  large  productiveness.  One  thought  will  show 
how  futile  this  expectation.  How  does  manure  benefit  a plant  ? By  its  soluble 
constituents— they  receive  only  liquid  food.  This  leached  manure  has  lost  the 
greater  share  of  the  soluble  elements  of  fertility,  and  acts  in  great  part  only 
mechanically  upon  the  soil. 

Attempting  too  much  is  another  great  cause  of  loss  to  the  farmer.  “ Much 
labor  on  little  land”  is  the  secret  of  success— enough  labor,  at  least,  to  do  every 
thing  in  the  best  manner.  Look  at  it— is  it  good  policy  to  expend  the  labor  of 
putting  in  a crop  over  six  acres,  when,  at  the  same  cost,  a like  result  may  be 
realized  from  three  or  four  ? Will  you  be  content  with  thirty  bushels  of  corn 
per  acre,  at  an  expense  of,  say  $12,  when,  by  adding  $3  in  manure  and  better 
culture,  you  may  realize  sixty  or  one  hundred  bushels  ? Will  you  grow  infe- 
rior stock  with  the  same  amount  of  food,  when  by  a larger  outlay  at  first  you 
may  have  the  best— those  always  salable  at  good  prices— while  the  unimproved 
scarcely  find  purchasers  at  any  price  ? Is  it  not  best,  either  to  concentrate 
your  labor  on  less  land,  or  increase  your  expenditure  so  as  to  embrace  the 
whole  farm  in  a thorough  system  of  cultivation  ? 

The  acknowledged  causes  of  unprofitable  farming  are  not  exhausted,  and  it 
Is  a proper  subject  for  the  examination  of  the  farmer.  Let  him  look  into  the 
matter,  and  see  where  and  why  he  has  failed. — Country  Gentleman, 


F. 

FACTS  ABOUT  WEEDS. 

Dr.  Lindley  estimates  as  a low  average  the  following  number  of  seeds  from 
each  of  these  four  plants : 


1 plant  of  Groundsel  produces 2,080 

1 “ Dandelion  “ 2,740 

1 “ Sow  Thistle  “ 11,040 

1 “ Spurge  “ 540 


16,360  plants, 


or  enough  seed  from  these  four  plants  to  cover  three  acres  and  a half,  at  three 
feet  apart.  To  hoe  this  land,  he  says,  will  cost  6s.  (sterling)  per  acre,  and 
hence  a man  throws  away  5s.  3d.  a time,  as  often  as  he  neglects  to  bend  his 
back  to  pull  up  a young  weed  before  it  begins  to  fulfill  the  first  law  of  nature. 
He  recommends  every  farmer,  whose  vertebral  column  will  not  bend,  to  count 
the  number  of  dandelions,  sow  thistles,  etc.,  on  the  first  square  rod  he  can 
measure  off. 

This  operation  may  be  repeated  in  this  country  by  applying  all  the  above 
estimates  to  pig-weed,  burdock,  fox-tail,  chick-weed,  and  purslane. 


G. 

SUCCESSFUL  FAEMING. 

James  Gowen,  of  Mount  Airy,  near  Philadelphia,  raised,  in  1845,  a ten-acre 
field  of  corn,  which  averaged  95  bushels  of  shelled  com  per  acre.  It  had  been 
in  grass  without  manure,  five  years ; it  was  plowed,  and  the  field  manured 

7 


154 


Appendix 


with  a ton  of  guano,  costing  $40.  The  rows  were  31  feet  apart,  and  the  plants 
12  inches.  (This  distance  would  be  too  great  for  small  Northern  corn.)  Judi- 
cious  harrowing,  in  preparation,  cleared  the  ground  thoroughly  of  grass  and 
weeds,  and  it  was  kept  perfectly  clean  afterward  at  little  cost.  There  were  7 
acres  of  winter  wheat,  and  one  of  spring  wheat,  the  whole  computed  to  aver- 
age over  40  bushels  per  acre.  The  spring  wheat  was  after  an  acre  of  carrots, 
of  900  bushels,  and  was  followed  by  an  acre  of  turnips  of  1,000  bushels ; the 
whole  worth  over  $500— from  one  acre  in  two  years.  The  carrot  crop  the  same 
year  was  1,000  bushels  per  acre;  sugar-parsnep,  800  bushels;  ruta-baga,  over 
600  bushels ; potatoes,  3 acres,  over  200  bushels  each.  These  were  only  part 
of  the  crops.  Besides,  there  were  more  than  100  tons  of  excellent  hay,  though 
the  season  was  unfavorable.  All  on  an  upland  farm  of  about  100  acres,  which 
maintained  during  the  summer  over  60  head  of  cattle.  So  much  for  manure, 
subsoiling,  fine  culture,  draining,  rotation,  etc.— Annual  Register . 

H. 

STIRRING  THE  SOIL. 

Every  observant  farmer  must  have  noticed  the  crust  which  forms  on  the  sur- 
face of  newly-stirred  soils,  after  lying  a few  days  to  the  action  of  the  dews.  A 
much  heavier  crust  is  formed  by  each  shower  of  rain  which  falls.  Good  and 
successful  cultivation  requires  that  this  newly-formed  crust  be  often  and  repeat- 
edly broken  by  the  hoe,  harrow,  or  other  instrument. 

A striking  instance  in  proof  of  the  importance  of  this  practice  has  just  been 
stated  by  an  extensive  farmer.  He  planted  a field  of  broom  com,  and,  by  way 
of  banter,  told  the  man  who  assisted  him  that  each  should  choose  a row  as 
nearly  alike  as  possible,  and  each  should  hoe  his  row,  and  the  measured 
amount  of  crop  on  each  should  be  the  proof  which  was  hoed  best.  Our  inform- 
ant stated  the  result  in  substance  as  follows : “ Determined  not  to  be  beaten, 
I hoed  my  row,  well,  once  a week  the  summer  through.  I had  not  seen  my 
assistant  hoe  his  at  all,  but  had  observed  that  for  a long  time  he  was  up  in  the 
morning  before  me.  At  length  I found  him  before  sunrise,  hoeing  his  broom- 
corn,  and  I asked  him  how  often  he  hoed  it ; he  answered,  ‘ Once  a day,  regu- 
larly.’ The  result  of  the  experiment  was,  his  row  beat  mine  by  nearly  double 
ti  e amount.”— Ibid. 


155 


* 


INDEX. 


A. 

PAGE 

Agriculture  History  of 9 

“ Improvement  of 11 

Ashes 41 

Apple  Culture,  Profits  of 146 

B. 

Bones,  how  to  prepare  them 37 

Barley 110 

Buckwheat 113 

Beans 115 

Beet 128 

Broom  Corn 136 

C. 

Crops, What  they  take  from  the  Soil  27 

“ Rotation  of 48,  97 

“ Farm 100 

“ How  to  Estimate 150 

Composts 45 

Capital 83 

Corn,  Indian 100 

Carrot 127 

Cotton 134 

Chinese  Sugar-Cane  135 

D. 

Drains,  Construction  of. 55 

Draining 51 

“ Ten  Reasons  for 52 

“ Conditions  requiring ...  53 

“ Practical  Directions  for.  53 

“ Will  it  Pay? 58 

F. 

Fences 61,  91 

“ Iron.  63 

“ Hurdle 66 

“ Are  they  Necessary  ? 70 

Facts  about  Weeds 153 

Farm  Management,  Essay  on ... . 82 

Farm  Crops 100 

Farming,  Unprofitable 152 

“ Successful. 153 

Flax 137 


G. 

PAGH 

Guano 85 

Gypsum 89 

Gates 91 

Grains,  Edible 100 

Grain,  How  to  Shock 114 

Grasses 129 

H. 

Hedges . . 66 

Harrow 76 

Hoe,  Horse 78 

Hemp 187 

Hop 13T 

How  to  Estimate  Crops 150 


I. 

Irrigation 46 

Implements 73 

“ List  and  prices  of 85 

“ Choice  or 92 

Indian  Corn 100 


K. 

Kohl  Rabi 126 


L. 

Lime 88 

Livestock 85 

“ Maintenance  of 87 

Land,  How  to  Measure 149 


M. 

Manures,  Necessity  of 25 

“ Classification  and  De- 
scription of. 28 

“ Management  of 42,  94 

Marl 38 

Mowers 81 

Millet 114,131 

Measuring  Land 149 

Measures,  Weights  and 151 

Maintenance  of  Livestock 87 


156 


Index 


w.  I 

PAGE 

Night  Soil 35 

Number  of  Plants  to  the  Acre 15o 

0. 

Oat 108 

Orchards,  Laying  out 140 

“ Soil  and  Situation  for. . 144 


P. 


Plants,  Food  of 

....  26 

“ Number  to  the  Acre. . , 

Plow 

....  73 

Pea 

....  117 

Pea-nut 

....  118 

Potato 

....  118 

“ Sweet 

....  122 

Parsnep 

R. 

Rotation,  Theory  of 

“ Benefits  of. 

Roller,  Field 

Rake,  Horse 

Reapers 

....  81 

Rye 

Sice 

S. 


Soils,  Classification  of 13 

“ Analysis  of 16 

“ Physical  Properties  of. 18 

“ Improvement  of 21,  93 

“ Importance  of  stirring  the.  154 

Subsoils 23 

Salt 40 

Seeds 86 

Seed-Sowers 80 

Sweet  Potato 122 

Sugar-Cane 135 

“ Chinese 135 

Successful  Farming 153 

Stirring  the  Soil 154 

T. 

Turnip 125 

U. 

Urine 88 

Unprofitable  Farming 152 

W. 

"Wheat 104 

Weights  and  Measures 114 

Weeds,  Facts  about 158 


# 


THE  BARN-YARD: 

A MANUAL 

OF 

Cattle,  pom  anir  i%ep  pusknkg; 

OR,  HOW  TO  BREED  AND  REAR 

THE  VARIOUS  SPECIES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS : 


EMBRACING 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  THB  BREEDING,  REARING,  AND  GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF 
HORSES,  MULES,  CATTLE,  SHEEP,  SWINE  AND  POULTRY;  THE  GENERA* 
LAWS,  PARENTAGE,  AND  HERIDITARY  DESCENT,  APPLIED  TO  ANI- 
MALS, AND  IIOW  BREEDS  MAY  BE  IMPROVED  ; IIOW  TO  INSURB 
THE  HEALTH  OF  ANIMALS  J AND  HOW  TO  TREAT  THEM 
FOR  DISEASES  WITHOUT  THE  USE  OF  DRUGS  J 

WITH  A 

GfcKjUr  un  38«-3U*fling. 

By  D.  H.  JACQUES, 

Author  of  “The  Home,”  “The  Garden,”  “The  Farm,”  “How  to  Writs,” 
“How  to  Do  Business,”  kto. 


Our  power  ever  the  lower  animals,  if  rightly  exercised,  redounds  to  their  eleratlon  and  happiness 
no  lees  than  to  our  convenience  and  profit. — Thb  Author. 


REVISED  EDITION. 


NEW  YORK: 

THE  AMERICAN  NEWS  COMPANY 

39  AND  41  CHAMBERS  STREET. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1870,  by 
GEO.  E.  WOODWARD, 

III  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  State#  for  thft 
Southern  District  of  New  York. 


PREP iCE 


We  commenced  this  little  manual  with  the  intention  of  making 
the  most  useful  compilation  possible,  within  the  space  allowed  us, 
from  the  great  number  of  larger  works  on  the  subjects  treated  to 
which  we  had  access.  In  the  progress  of  our  work,  however,  we 
found  occasion  to  depart,  in  some  degree,  from  our  original  plan, 
and  introduce  more  new  matter  and  re-write  and  condense  more 
that  is,  in  substance,  derived  from  others,  than  we  at  first  in- 
tended ; but  our  claims  on  the  score  of  originality  will  not  be 
large.  If  the  matter  and  arrangement  of  our  book  shall  prove 
acceptable  to  the  public,  and  serve  the  purposes  intended,  we 
shall  be  satisfied.  The  humble  merit  of  having  presented,  in  an 
attractive  and  available  form  a mass  of  useful  information,  prac- 
tical hints,  and  valuable  suggestions,  on  a number  of  important 
topics,  is  all  that  we  purpose  to  insist  upon.  This  the  great  pub- 
lic, for  whose  good  we  have  labored,  will,  we  are  sure,  readily 
accord  to  us. 

We  have  given  credit  in  the  body  of  the  work,  whenever  prac- 
ticable, to  the  authors  from  whom  we  have  derived  aid  in  the 
various  departments  of  our  labor  ; but  we  here  gladly  make  an 
additional  record  of  our  indebtedness  to  the  works  of  Youatt, 
Martin,  Stuart,  Randall,  Wingfield,  Dixon,  Bement,  Browne, 
Quimby,  etc.  The  Country  Gentleman , the  American  Agriculturist, 
the  Southern  Cultivator , and  other  agricultural  papers,  have  been 
examined  with  satisfaction  to  ourselves  and  with  profit  to  our 
readers. 


VI 


Preface. 


We  have  endeavored  to  make  our  little  work  thorough  and  re- 
liable, so  far  as  it  goes,  and  to  give  the  largest  possible  amount 
of  useful  information  that  can  be  condensed  into  so  small  a num- 
ber of  pages.  We  have  occupied  a large  field,  we  are  aware,  and 
can  not  hope  to  have  been  so  full  on  all  points  as  many  readers 
will  desire.  We  have  not  aimed,  of  course,  to  render  the  larger 
works  on  the  special  topics  to  which  our  chapters  are  devoted  un- 
necessary. We  hope  rather  to  create  a demand  for  them  ; but 
there  are  thousands  whom  this  little  manual  will  furnish  with  all 
the  information  they  desire  on  the  subjects  on  which  it  treats, 
and  on  whom  the  details  with  which  the  larger  and  more  expen- 
sive works  are  filled  would  be  thrown  away.  To  such,  in  an  es- 
pecial manner,  we  commend  it,  hoping  that  it  will  not  wholly  fail 
to  meet  their  expectations. 


CONTENTS 


I.— THE  HORSE. 

A Historical  Sketch — Range  of  the  Horse  in  Reference  to  Climate— Effects  of 
Climate  and  Food — Varieties  or  Breeds— The  Race-Horse— Origin  and 
Characteristics — Half-bred  Horses— The  Arabian  Horse— Wonderful  Gene- 
alogies—Description — The  Arabian  “ Tartar” — The  Morgan— Opinions  in 
Reference  to  the  Morgans — Sherman  Morgan — The  Canadian  Horse — Tho 
Norman— “Louis  Philippe”— The  Cleveland  Bay— The  Conestoga— The 
Clydesdale  Horse — The  Virginian — Wild  Horses— American  Trotting  Horses 
— Points  of  a Horse  Illustrated— Color,  and  what  it  Indicates — Common 
Terms  Denoting  the  Parts  of  a Horse— Stables — Stables  as  they  are— Situation 
of  Stables— Size— Windows— Floors— Draining— Racks  and  Mangers — Ven- 
tilation of  Stables — Warmth,  etc.— The  best  Food  for  Horses — Work  and  Di- 
gestion— Bulk  of  Food — Quantity — Water— General  Management  of  the 
Horse— Air — Litter— Grooming — Exercise — Vices  and  Habits — Restiveness 
— Backing  and  Balking— Biting — Kicking— Running  Away — Rearing— Over- 
reaching—Rolling— Shying — Slipping  the  Halter — Tripping— Hints  to  Buy- 
ers—Warranty— Form  of  a Receipt  Embodying  a Warranty— What  a War- 
ranty Includes— What  constitutes  Unsoundness Page  9 

II.— THE  ASS  AND  THE  MULE. 

Why  the  Ass  has  been  Neglected  and  Abused — Eastern  Appreciation— The 
Ass  compared  with  the  Horse— The  Ass  in  Guinea  and  Persia— The  Mule- 
Adaptation  as  a Beast  of  Burden — Trade  in  Kentucky— Use  on  a Farm — 
How  to  have  large  and  handsome  Mules 46 

III. — CATTLE. 

Historical  Sketch— Breeds— The  Devons— New  England  Cattle — The  Hereford 
Breed— The  Sussex  Breed— The  Ayrshire  Cattle— The  Welsh  Breeds— Irish 
Cattle— The  Long  Horns— The  Durham  or  Short-Horned  Breed — Alderney 
or  Jersey  Cattle — The  Galloway  Breed  or  Hornless  Cattle— Other  Polled 
Cattle— The  Cream-Pot  Breed— Points  of  Cattle — General  Management  of 
Cattle— The  Cow-House  Feeding — Rearing  Calves — Milking — How  to  Esti- 
mate the  Weight  of  Livestock 49 

IV. — SHEEP. 

Characteristics  of  the  Sheep — Mutton— Breeds  in  the  United  States— The  Na- 
tive Breed— The  Spanish  Merino — American  Merinos— Saxon  Merinos— The 
New  Leicester  Breed — The  South-Downs— Mr.  Taylor's  Facts  and  Figures 
— The  Cotswold  Breed— New  Oxfordshire  Sheep — The  Cheviot  Breed — The 


Contents. 


viii 

Lincoln  Breed  -On  the  Choice  of  a Breed — The  Improved  English  Varieties 
as  Mutton  Sheep — The  Merinos  as  Wool-Producers — General  Management 
— Barns  and  Sheds— Feeding  Backs  — Feeding  — Salt — Water  — Shade  — 
Lambs — Castration— Docking — Washing — Shearing — Value  of  Sheep  to  the 
Farmer— An  Anecdote 73 

V.— SWINE. 

Natural  History  of  Swine — The  Wild  Boar— Opinions  Respecting  the  Hog— 
The  Hog  among  the  Greeks  and  Eomans — Swine  Breeding  in  Gaul  ana 
Spain — Abhorrence  toward  Swine’s  Flesh  among  the  Jews,  Egyptians,  Mo* 
hammedans,  and  Others— Cuvier’s  Opinion — Unwholesomeness  of  Swine’s 
Flesh  in  Warm  Climates— Breeds  of  Swine— The  “ Land  Pike”— The  Chi- 
nese Hog— The  Berkshire  Breed — The  Suffolk  Breed— The  Essex  Breed — 
The  Chester  Hog — Points  of  the  Hog— Feeding — The  Piggery 95 

VI.— IMPROVEMENT  OF  BREEDS 

Sel  ection  of  the  Sire  and  Dam — How  the  Cream  Pot  Breed  was  Produced — 
In-and-in  Breeding — Youatt’s  Opinion — Crossing— Origin  of  La  Chamois 
Sheep— The  best  Breeds  most  Profitable— How  to  Improve  One’s  Stock- 
How  Improvements  may  be  bred  Out  as  well  as  In 108 

VII.— DISEASES  AND  THEIR  CURE. 

About  throwing  Physic  to  the  Dogs— Wild  Animals  seldom  Sick— The  Reason 
why — Causes  of  Disease  among  Domestic  Animals— How  they  may  be  kept 
in  Perfect  Health — Treatment  of  their  Diseases — The  Water-Cure  for  Ani- 
mals  114 

Vm.—  POULTRY. 

The  Domestic  Fowl— Wild  Origin  Unknown— General  Characteristics  of  the 
Domestic  Fowl— The  Spanish  Fowl— The  Dorking— The  Polish  Fowl  - The 
Hamburg  Fowl— The  Dominique  Fowl— The  Leghorn  Fowl— The  Shang- 
hais and  Cochin  Chinas— The  Bantam— The  Game  Fowl— Mongrels— Choice 
of  Breed — Accommodations— Incubation — Bearing  Chickens— Five  Rules — 
The  Guinea  Fowl— The  Domestic  Turkey— The  Principal  Requisites  in 
Turkey  Rearing — General  Directions — The  Domestic  Goose— How  to  Rear 
Geese— Shearing  instead  of  Plucking— The  Domestic  Duck— Best  Varieties 
—How  to  Rear  Ducks  —Fattening— Preparing  Poultry  for  Market 118 

IX.— BEE-KEEPING. 

Wonders  of  the  Bee-Hive — The  three  kinds  of  Bees — The  Queen  and  her  Du- 
ties— Curious  Facts — How  the  Cells  are  Made — Bee-Bread — Ventilation  by 
the  Bees  on  Scientific  Principles— The  Apiary— Bee-Hives— How  to  Make 
them — Sectional  Hives— Mr.  Luda’s  Hive-  Swarming — Robbing  the  Hive — 


Wintering— Feeding— Killing  the  Dronos 148 

APPENDIX. 

Horse  Taming 


9 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


I. 

THE  HORSE. 

A horse  ! a horse  ! My  kingdom  for  a horse  \—Shakspeare. 

I.— HISTORY. 

HE  horse  is  probably  a native  of  the  warm  coun 
tries  of  the  East,  where  he  is  found  wild  in  a 
considerable  state  of  perfection.  Its  use,  both 
as  a beast  of  burden  and  for  the  purposes  of  war, 
early  attracted  the  attention  of  mankind.  Thus 
when  Joseph  proceeded  with  bis  father’s  body  from  Egypt  into 
Canaan,  “there  accompanied  him  both  chariots  and  horsemen” 
(Gen.  xix.) ; and  the  Canaanites  are  said  to  have  gone  out  to  fight 
against  Israel  “ with  many  horses  and  chariots”  (Joshua  ii.  4). 
This  was  more  than  sixteen  hundred  years  before  Christ. 

The  horse  was  early  employed  on  the  course.  In  the  year 
1450  b.  o.  the  Olympic  games  were  established  in  Greece,  at 
which  horses  were  used  in  chariot  and  other  races. 

No  horses  were  found  either  on  the  continent  or  on  the 
islands  of  the  New  World;  but  the  immense  droves  now  ex- 
isting in  parts  of  both  North  and  South  America,  all  of  which 
have  descended  from  the  two  or  three  mares  and  stallions  left 
by  the  early  Spanish  voyagers,  prove  very  clearly  that  the 
climate  and  soil  of  these  countries  is  well  adapted  to  their 
propagation. 

Professor  Low  says : “ The  horse  is  seen  to  be  affected  in  his 

1* 


10 


Domestic  Animals. 


character  and  form  by  the  agencies  of  food  and  climate,  and  it 
may  be  by  other  causes  unknown  to  us.  He  sustains  the  tem- 
perature of  the  most  burning  regions ; but  there  is  a degree  of 
cold  at  which  he  can  not  exist,  and  as  he  approaches  this  limit 
his  temperament  and  external  conformation  are  affected.  In 
Iceland,  at  the  Arctic  Circle,  he  has  become  a dwarf ; in  Lapland, 
at  latitude  65°,  he  has  given  place  to  the  reindeer ; and  in  Kamt- 
sehatka,  at  62°,  he  has  given  place  to  the  dog.  The  nature 
and  abundance  of  his  food,  too,  greatly  affect  his  character  and 
form.  A country  of  heaths  and  innutritious  herbs  will  not 
produce  a horse  so  large  and  strong  as  one  of  plentiful  herbage ; 
the  horse  of  the  mountains  will  be  smaller  than  that  of  the 
plains ; the  horse  of  the  sandy  desert  than  that  of  the  watered 
valley.”* 

II.— BLEEDS. 

The  genus  Equus , according  to  modern  naturalists,  consists 
of  six  different  animals — the  horse  (A.  caballus) ; the  ass  (A. 
minus) ; the  quagga  (A  quagga) ; the  dziggithai  (A  hemionus) ; 
the  mountain  zebra  (A  zebra) ; and  the  zebra  of  the  plains 
(A.  burchelli). 

Of  the  horse  there  are  many  varieties  or  breeds.  Ineffect- 
ual attempts  have  been  made  to  decide  which  variety  now 
existing  constitutes  the  original  breed ; some  contending  for  the 
Barb  and  others  for  the  wild  horses  of  Tartary.  It  is  of  the 
latter  that  Byron  thus  speaks  in  “Mazeppa:” 

With  flowing  tail  and  flying  mane, 

With  nostrils  never  streaked  with  pain, 

Mouths  bloodless  to  the  bit  or  rein, 

And  feet  that  iron  never  shod, 

And  flanks  unscarred  by  spur  or  rod, 

A thousand  horse— the  wild,  the  free — 

Likes  waves  that  follow  o’er  the  sea, 

Came  thundering  on. 

The  principal  breeds  of  horses  now  bred  in  the  United  Statea 
are  the  Race-Horse,  the  Arabian,  the  Morgan,  the  Canadian, 


* Illustrations  of  the  Breeds  of  Animals. 


The  Horse.  11 

the  Norman,  the  Cleveland  Bay,  the  Conestoga,  the  Virginia 
Horse,  the  Clydesdale,  and  the  Wild  or  Prairie  Horse. 

1.  The  Race- Horse. — “There  is  much  dispute,”  Mr.  Youatt 
says,  “ with  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  Thorough-bred  Horse. 
By  some  he  is  traced  through  both  sire  and  dam  to  Eastern  pa- 
rentage ; others  believe  him  to  be  the  native  horse,  improved 
and  perfected  by  judicious  crossings  with  the  Barb,  the  Turk, 
or  the  Arabian.  The  Steed  Book,  which  is  an  authority  with 
every  English  breeder,  traces  all  the  old  racers  to  some  Eastern 
origin;  or  it  traces  them  until  the  pedigree  is  lost  in  tho 
uncertainty  of  an  early  period  of  breeding. 

“ Whatever  may  be  the  truth  as  to  the  origin  of  the  race- 
horse, the  strictest  attention  has  for  the  last  fifty  years  been 
paid  to  pedigree.  In  the  descent  of  almost  every  modern  racer 
not  the  slightest  flaw  can  be  discovered.” 

The  racer  is  generally  distinguished,  according  to  the  same 
authority,  by  his  beautiful  Arabian  head ; his  fine  and  finely- 
set  neck ; his  oblique,  lengthened  shoulders ; his  well-bent 
hinder  legs ; his  ample  muscular  quarters  ; his  flat  legs,  rather 
short  from  the  knee  downward,  although  not  always  so  deep 
as  they  should  be ; and  his  long  and  elastic  pastern. 

The  use  of  thorough-bred  and  half-bred  horses  for  domes 
tic  purposes  is  becoming  common  in  England.  The  half-bred 
horse  is  not  only  much  handsomer  than  the  common  horse,  but 
his  speed  and  power  of  endurance  are  infinitely  greater. 

“The  acknowledged  superiority  of  Northern  carriage  and 
draught  stock,”  the  editor  of  the  New  York  Spirit  of  the  Times 
says,  “ is  owing  almost  entirely  to  the  fact  that  thorough-bred 
horses  have  found  their  way  North  and  East  from  Long  Island 
and  New  Jersey,  where  great  numbers  are  annually  disposed  of 
that  are  unsuited  to  the  course.” 

For  the  farm,  the  pure  thorough-bred  horse  would  be  nearly 
useless.  He  lacks  weight  and  substance  to  give  value  and  power 
for  draught.  For  road  work  the  same  objections  will  apply, 
although  not  to  the  same  extent,  perhaps.  The  best  English 
road  horse  is  a cross  of  the  thorough-bred  and  the  Cleveland. 


12 


Domestic  Animals. 


2.  The  Arabian  Horse. — The  genealogy  of  the  Arabian 
horse,  according  to  Arab  account,  is  known  for  two  thousand 
years.  Many  of  them  have  written  and  attested  pedigrees  ex- 
tending more  than  four  hundred  years,  and,  with  true  Eastern 
exaggeration,  traced  by  oral  tradition  from  the  stud  of  Solo- 
mon. A more  careful  account  is  kept  of  these  genealogies  than 
of  those  of  the  most  ancient  family  of  the  proudest  Arab  chief, 
and  very  singular  precautions  are  taken  to  prevent  the  possi- 
bility of  fraud,  so  far  as  the  written  pedigree  extends. 

The  head  of  the  Arabian  horse  is  inimitable.  The  broadness 
and  squareness  of  the  forehead,  the  shortness  and  fineness  of  the 
muzzle,  the  prominence  and  brilliancy  of  the  eye,  the  smallness 
of  the  ears,  and  the  beautiful  course  of  the  veins,  are  its  char- 
acteristics. In  the  formation  of  the  shoulders  next  to  the  head, 
the  Arabian  is  superior  to  any  other  breed.  The  withers  are 
high  and  the  shoulder-blades  inclined  backward,  and  so  nicely 
adjusted  that  in  descending  a hill  the  point  or  edge  of  the  ham 
never  ruffles  the  skin.  The  fineness  of  the  legs  and  the  oblique 
position  of  the  pasterns  may  seem  to  lessen  his  strength ; but 
the  leg,  although  small,  is  flat  and  wiry,  and  its  bones  uncom- 
monly dense.* 

Eichardson  says : “ Often  may  the  traveler  in  the  desert,  on 
entering  within  the  folds  of  a tent,  behold  the  interesting  spec- 
tacle of  a magnificent  courser  extended  upon  the  ground,  and 
some  half  dozen  little  dark-skinned,  naked  urchins  scrambling 
across  her  body,  or  reclining  in  sleep,  some  upon  her  neck, 
some  on  her  body,  and  others  pillowed  upon  her  heels ; nor  do 
the  children  ever  experience  injury  from  their  gentle  playmate. 
She  recognizes  the  family  of  her  friend,  her  patron,  and  toward 
them  all  the  natural  sweetness  of  her  disposition  leans,  even  to 
overflowing.” 

The  Arabian  horse  Tartar,  whose  portrait  we  give  on  the  next 
page,  is  thus  described  in  the  New  England  Farmer:  “This 
beautiful  horse  was  bred  by  Asa  Pingree,  of  Topsfield,  Mass. 


* Youatt. 


The  Arabian  Horse  Tartar, 


Fig.  t 


14 


Domestic  Animals. 


He  now  stands  fifteen  and  one  fourth  hands  high;  weighs 
nine  hundred  pounds ; is  of  dark-gray  color,  with  dark  mane 
and  tail.  He  was  sired  by  the  imported,  full-blood  Arabian 
horse  ‘Imaum,’  and  is  seven  years  old  this  spring.  This 
engraving,  copied  from  life,  gives  the  figure  of  4 Tartar,’  but  can 
not  represent  the  agile  action,  flashing  eye,  and  cat-  like  nimble- 
ness of  all  his  movements.  It  shows  the  beautiful  Arabian 
head  and  finely-set-on  neck;  his  ample  muscular  quarters; 
his  flat  legs,  rather  short  from  the  knee  downward ; and  his 
long  and  elastic  pastern.  All  his  motions  are  light  and  exceed- 
ingly graceful,  and  his  temper  so  docile  that  a child  may 
handle  him.” 

3.  The  Morgan  Horse . — This  celebrated  American  breed  is 
probably  a cross  between  the  English  race-horse  and  the  com- 
mon New  England  mare.  It  is  perhaps,  all  things  considered, 
the  very  finest  breed  for  general  usefulness  now  existing  in  the 
United  States.  Mr.  S.  W.  Jewett,  a celebrated  stock  breeder, 
in  an  article  in  the  Cultivator , says  : 

“ I believe  the  Morgan  blood  to  be  the  best  ever  infused  into 
the  Northern  horse.  The  Morgans  are  well  known  and  esteem- 
ed for  activity,  hardiness,  gentleness,  and  docility ; well  adapted 
for  all  work ; good  in  every  spot  except  for  races  on  the  turf. 
They  are  lively  and  spirited,  lofty  and  elegant  in  their  action, 
carrying  themselves  gracefully  in  the  harness.  They  have 
clean  bone,  sinewy  legs,  compactness,  short,  strong  hacks, 
powerful  lungs,  strength,  and  endurance.  They  are  known  by 
their  short,  clean  heads,  width  across  the  face  at  the  eyes, 
eyes  lively  and  prominent;  they  have  open  and  wide  under 
jaws,  large  windpipe,  deep  brisket,  heavy  and  round  body, 
broad  in  the  hack,  short  limbs  in  proportion  to  size  (of  body) ; 
they  have  broad  quarters,  a lively,  quick  action,  indomitable 
spirit,  move  true  and  easy  in  a good,  round  trot,  and  are  fast 
on  the  walk ; color  dark  hay,  chestnut,  brown,  or  black,  with 
dark,  flowing,  wavy  mane  and  tail.  They  make  the  best  of 
roadsters,  and  live  to  a great  age.” 

All  do  not  agree,  however,  with  this  estimate  of  the  Morgans. 


The  II  ORSE.  15 

A distinguished  judge  of  horses  in  Vermont,  quoted  by  Randall 
in  his  Introduction  to  Youatt  on  the  Horse,  says : 

“ They  [the  Morgans]  are  good  for  an  hour’s  drive — for  short 
stages.  They  are  good  to  run  around  town  with.  They  are 
good  in  the  light  pleasure-wagon — prompt,  lively  (not  spirited), 
and  ‘trappy.’  There  is  no  question  among  those  who  have 
had  fair  opportunities  of  comparing  the  Morgans  with  horses 
of  purer  blood  and  descended  from  different  stocks,  in  regard  to 
the  relative  position  of  the  Morgan.  He  is,  as  he  exists  at  the 
present  day,  inferior  in  size,  speed,  and  bottom — in  fact,  in  all 
those  qualities  necessary  to  the  performance  of  1 great  deeds’ 


SIILRMAN  MORGAN. 


on  the  road  or  the  farm,  to  the  descendants  of  Messenger,  Du- 
roc,  imported  Magnum  Bonum,  and  many  other  horses  of  de- 
served celebrity.” 

Sherman  Morgan,  whose  portrait  we  are  permitted  to  copy 
from  Linsley’s  “Morgan  Horse,”  was  foaled  in  1835,  the  prop- 
erty of  Moses  Cook,  of  Campton,  H.  H.  Sired  by  Sherman,  g 
sire,  Justin  Morgan.  The  pedigree  of  the  dam  not  fully  estab- 
lished, hut  conceded  to  have  been  a very  fine  animal,  and  said  to 


16 


Domestic  Animals. 


be  from  the  Justin  Morgan.  Sherman  Morgan  is  fifteen  hands 
high,  weighs  about  1,050  lbs.,  is  dark  chestnut,  and  very  much 
resembles  his  sire  Sherman,  but  heavier,  stockier,  and  not  aa 
much  action.  A fine  horse,  and  is  now  kept  in  the  stable  at 
Lancaster,  N.  H.,  where  the  Sherman  died.  He  is  owned  bj 
A.  J.  Oongdon. 

4.  The  Canadian  Horse. — This  horse  abounds  in  the  Cana 
dian  Provinces  and  in  the  Northern  States  of  the  Union,  and  is 
too  well  known  to  require  a particular  description.  It  is  mainly 
of  Norman-French  descent.  It  is  a hardy,  long-lived  animal, 
is  easily  kept,  and  very  useful  on  a farm,  although  generally  too 
small  for  heavy  work.  A cross  between  stallions  of  this  breed 
and  our  common  mares  produces  a superior  horse,  and  such 
crosses  are  finding  favor  among  farmers. 

5.  The  Norman  Horse. — The  French  or  Norman  horse,  from 
which  the  Canadian  is  descended,  is  destined  to  take  a more 
prominent  place  than  has  hitherto  been  assigned  to  it  among 
our  working  horses.  We  introduce  an  engraving  of  one  of  this 
breed,  called  Louis  Philippe,  which  was  bred  by  Edward 
Harris,  of  Moorestown  N.  J.,  by  whom  the  breed  was  imported 
from  France. 

The  Norman  horse  is  from  the  Spanish,  of  Arabian  ancestry, 
and  crossed  upon  the  draught  horses  of  Normandy.  Mr. 
Harris  had  admired  the  speed,  toughness,  and  endurance  of  the 
French  stage-coach  horses,  and  resolved  to  import  this  valuable 
stock,  and  deserves  the  thanks  of  the  American  public  for  his 
perseverance  and  sacrifices  in  this  enterprise.  The  Norman 
horses  are  enduring  and  energetic  beyond  description,  and  keep 
their  condition  on  hard  fare  and  brutal  treatment,  when  most 
other  breeds  would  quail  and  die.  This  variety  of  horse  is 
employed  in  France  to  draw  the  ponderous  stage-coaches,  called 
“diligences,”  and  travelers  express  astonishment  at  the  extra- 
ordinary performances  of  these  animals.  Each  of  these  huge 
vehicles  is  designed  for  eighteen  passengers,  and  when  thus 
loaded  are  equal  to  five  tons  weight.  Five  horses  are  attached 
to  the  clumsy  and  cumbrous  carriage,  with  rude  harness,  and 


The  Fbench  ok  Noema.n  House  Louis  Philippe. 


Fig.  3. 


18 


Domestic  Animals. 


their  regular  rate  of  speed  with  this  enormous  load  is  seven 
miles  an  hour,  and  this  pace  is  maintained  over  rough  and 
hilly  regions.  On  some  routes  the  roads  are  lighter,  when  the 
speed  is  increased  to  eight,  nine,  and  sometimes  to  ten  miles  an 
hour. 

6.  Cleveland  Bay . — According  to  Mr.  Youatt,  the  true  Cleve- 
land Bay  is  nearly  extinct  in  England.  They  were  formerly 
employed  as  a heavy,  slow  coach-horse.  Mr.  Youatt  says: 
“ The  origin  of  the  better  kind  of  coach-horse  is  the  Cleveland 
Bay,  confined  principally  to  Yorkshire  and  Durham,  with 
nerhaps  Lincolnshire  on  one  side  and  Northumberland  on  the 
other,  but  difficult  to  meet  with  pure  in  either  county.  The 
Cleveland  mare  is  crossed  by  a three-fourths  or  through-bred 
horse  of  sufficient  substance  and  height,  and  the  produce  is  the 
coach-horse  most  in  repute,  with  his  arched  crest  and  high 
action.  From  the  thorough- bred  of  sufficient  height,  but  not  of 
so  much  substance,  we  obtain  the  four-in-hand  and  superior 
curricle-horse. 

Cleveland  Bays  were  imported  into  western  New  York  a 
few  years  since,  where  they  have  spread  considerably.  They 
have  often  been  exhibited  at  our  State  fairs.  They  are  mon- 
strously large,  and  for  their  size  are  symmetrical  horses,  and 
possess  very  respectable  action.  Whether  they  would  endure 
on  the  road  at  any  but  a moderate  pace,  we  are  not  informed, 
and  have  some  doubts.  Whether  they  spring  from  the  genu- 
ine and  unmixed  Cleveland  stock,  now  so  scarce  in  England, 
we  have  no  means  of  knowing.  The  half-bloods,  the  produce 
of  a cross  with  our  common  mares,  are  liked  by  many  of  our 
farmers.  They  are  said  to  make  strong,  serviceable  farm 
beasts — though  rather  prone  to  sullenness  of  temper.* 

7.  The  Conestoga  Horse. — This  horse,  which  is  found  chiefly 
in  Pennsylvania  and  the  adjacent  States,  is  more  remarkable 
for  endurance  than  symmetry.  In  height  it  sometimes  reaches 
seventeen  hands ; the  legs  being  long  and  the  body  light. 


* RandalL 


The  Horse.  19 

The  Conestoga  breed  makes  good  carriage  and  heavy  draft 
horses. 

8.  The  Clydesdale  Horse. — The  Clydesdale  horse  is  descended 
from  a cross  between  the  Flemish  horse  and  the  Lanarkshire 
(Scotland)  mares.  The  mare  is  derived  from  the  district  on  the 
Clyde  where  the  breed  is  chiefly  found.  Horses  of  this  breed 
are  deservedly  esteemed  for  the  cart  and  for  the  plow  on 
heavy  soil.  They  are  strong,  hardy,  steady,  true  pullers,  of 
sound  constitution,  and  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  hands  high. 
They  are  broad,  thick,  heavy,  compact,  well  made  for  durabil- 


THE  CLYDESDALE  HO  BSE. 


ity,  health,  and  power.  They  have  sturdy  legs,  strong  shoul- 
ders, back,  and  hips,  a well-arched  neck,  and  a light  face  and 
head. 

9.  The  Virginia  Horse. — This  breed  predominates  in  the 
State  from  which  it  takes  its  name,  and  abounds  to  a greater 
or  less  extent  in  all  the  Southern,  Western,  and  Middle  States. 
It  derives  its  origin  from  English  blood-horses  imported  at 
various  times,  and  has  been  most  diligently  and  purely  kept 
in  the  South.  The  celebrated  Shark,  the  best  horse  of  his  day, 


20 


Domestic  Animals. 


was  sire  of  the  best  Virginian  horses,  while  Tally-ho,  son  of 
Highflyer,  peopled  the  Jerseys.* 

10.  The  Wild  or  Prairie  Horse.  — In  the  Southwestern 
States  wild  horses  abound,  which  are  doubtless  sprung  from 
the  same  Spanish  stock  as  the  wild  horses  of  the  pampas  and 
other  parts  of  the  southern  continent,  all  of  which  are  of  the 
celebrated  Andalusian  breed,  derived  from  the  Moorish  Barb. 
The  prairie  horses  are  often  captured,  and  when  domesticated 
are  found  to  be  capable  of  great  endurance.  They  are  not, 
however,  recommended  by  the  symmetry  or  elegance  of  ap- 
pearance for  which  their  type  is  so  greatly  distinguished, 
being  generally  rather  small  and  scrubby.t 

11.  The  American  Trotting-Horse. — u We  can  not  refrain,” 
H.  S.  Randall  says,  in  the  Introduction  to  Youatt  on  the  Horse, 
already  referred  to,  ufrom  calling  attention  to  our  trotting- 
horses,  though  in  reality  they  do  not,  at  least  as  a whole,  con- 
stitute a breed,  or  even  a distinct  variety  or  family.  There  is 
a family  of  superior  trotters,  including  several  of  the  best  our 
country  has  ever  produced,  the  descendants  of  Abdallah  and 
Messenger,  and  running  back  through  their  sire  Mambrino  to 
the  thorough-bred  horse,  old  Messenger.  But  many  of  our 
best  trotters  have  no  known  pedigrees,  and  some  of  them, 
without  doubt,  are  entirely  destitute  of  the  blood  of  the  race- 
horse. Lady  Suffolk  is  by  Engineer,  but  the  blood  of  Engineer 
is  unknown  (she  is  a gray  mare,  fifteen  hands  and  two  inches 
high).  Dutchman  has  no  known  pedigree.  Other  celebrated 
trotters  stand  in  the  same  category — though  we  are  inclined  to 
think  that  a decided  majority  of  the  best,  especially  at  long 
distances,  have  a greater  or  less  infusion  of  the  blood  of  the 
race-horse. 

“ The  United  States  has  undoubtedly  produced  more  superior 
trotters  than  any  other  country  in  the  world,  and  in  no  other 
country  has  the  speed  of  the  best  American  trotters  been 
equaled.” 


* Farmers’  Eeghter. 


+ Farmers’  Encyclopedia. 


The  Horse. 


21 


III.— POINTS  OF  HORSES. 

Every  one  who  has  anything  to  do  with  the  horse  should 
know  something  of  the  “points”  by  means  of  which  a good 
animal  is  distinguished  from  a bad  one.  It  is  necessary  to 
understand  this,  no  matter  for  what  particular  service  the  horse 
may  be  required ; and  the  qualities  indicated  by  these  points 
are  universal  in  all  breeds. 

To  illustrate  this  subject  and  teach  the  uninstructed  how  to 
correctly  judge  the  horse,  we  introduce  the  accompanying  let- 
tered outlines. 

It  is  evident  that  to  be  a good  judge  of  a horse,  one  must 
have  in  his  memory  a model  by  which  to  try  all  that  may  be 
presented  to  his  criticism  and  judgment. 

Fig.  5 represents  such  a model.  It  is  a thoioagh-bred 
horse,  in  which  the  artist  has  endeavored  to  avoid  every  fault. 
Fig.  6 is  designed  to  represent  a horse  in  which  every  good 
point  is  suppressed.  It  may  not  be  common  to  see  a horse 
totally  destitute  of  every  good  point ; but  injudicious  breeding 
has  so  obliterated  the  good  ones,  that  the  cut  fig.  6 is  not  a 
caricature,  though  we  confess  that  its  original  is  little  less  than 
a caricature  on  the  true  ideal  of  a horse.  Such  a head  is  com- 
mon, so  is  such  a shoulder,  such  a back,  quarters,  and  legs; 
and  if  they  are  not  very  often  all  combined  in  one  animal,  they 
are,  unfortunately,  often  found  distributed  among  the  common 
breeds  in  such  abundance  as  to  mar  the  beauty  and  the  service 
of  three  quarters  of  all  the  horses  in  ordinary  use.  The  letters 
are  alike  on  both  figures,  and  will  enable  the  reader  to  draw  a 
comparison  between  the  respective  points  of  each.  We  copy 
the  description  of  the  cuts  from  the  Farmer's  Companion : 

“ The  most  important  part  of  all  is  probably  the  direction  of 
the  shoulder,  from  A to  B.  Next  to  this,  the  length  from  the 
hip  to  the  hock,  0 to  D.  The  point  which  next  to  these  prob- 
ably most  contributes  to  speed  and  easy  going,  is  the  shortness 
of  the  canon  bone  between  the  knee  and  the  pastern  joint,  E 
to  F,  a point  without  which  no  leg  is  good.  A horse  which 
has  all  these  three  points  good  will  necessarily  and  infallibly 


22 


Domestic  Animals. 


stand  over  a great  deal  of  ground,  W to  X,  that  is,  the  distance 
between  his  fore  and  hind  feet  will  be  great ; while  one  which 
is  deficient  in  all  of  them,  or,  indeed,  in  the  two  first,  will  as 


assuredly  stand  like  a goat  with  all  its  feet  gathered  under  him, 
and  will  never  he  either  a fast  horse  or  safe  under  saddle.  A 


horse,  not  in  motion,  may  be  more  speedily  judged  of  by  this 
feature  than  by  any  other.  One  consequence  of  a fine  receding 
shoulder  is  to  give  length  in  the  humerus , or  upper  arm,  from 


The  Horse. 


23 


B to  P,  without  which  a great  stride  can  hardly  he  attained, 
but  which  will  seldom  if  ever  be  found  wanting  if  the  shoulder- 
blade  be  well  placed.  A prominent  and  fleshy  chest  is  admired 
by  some,  probably  because  they  think  it  indicative  of  powerful 
lungs  and  room  for  their  use.  We  object  to  it  as  adding  to 
what  it  is  so  desirable  to  avoid — the  weight  to  be  lifted  forward 
in  the  act  of  progression — while  all  the  space  the  lungs  require 
is  to  be  obtained  by  depth  instead  of  breadth , as  from  A to  H, 
in  which  point,  if  a horse  be  deficient,  he  will  seldom  be  fit 
for  fast  work.  The  other  points  which  we  have  marked  for 
comparison  are  Gr  to  E,  or  the  width  of  the  leg  immediately 
below  the  knee,  which  in  a well-formed  leg  will  be  equal  all  the 
way  down ; in  a bad  one  it  will  be  narrowish  immediately  below 
the  knee,  or  what  is  called  4 tied  in .’  The  shape  of  the  neck 
is  more  important  than  might  at  first  thought  be  supposed,  as 
affecting  both  the  wind  and  the  handiness  of  the  mouth ; no 
horse  with  a faulty  neck  and  a head  ill-attached  to  it,  as  at  Q 
to  K in  fig.  6,  ever  possesses  a good  or  manageable  mouth. 
The  points  of  the  face  are  not  without  significance,  a feebly 
developed  countenance  generally  showing  weakness  of  courage 
if  not  of  constitution.  We  therefore  like  to  see  a large  and 
bony  protuberance  above  the  eye,  as  at  L in  fig.  5,  giving  the 
appearance  of  a sinking  immediately  below,  followed  by  a 
slightly  Roman  or  protruding  inclination  toward  the  nose. 
These  when  present  are  generally  signs  of  ‘blood,’  which  is  in 
some  proportion  or  other  a quality  without  which  no  breed  of 
horses  will  ever  improve  or  long  entitle  itself  to  rank  as  other 
than  a race  of  drudges,  fit  only  for  sand  or  manure  carts.” 
Bearing  these  points  in  mind,  you  may,  by  observing  and 
comparing  the  different  animals  which  fall  under  your  eyes, 
soon  qualify  yourself  to  give  an  intelligent  opinion  of  a horse. 
One  can  not  become  perfect  in  this  branch  of  knowledge  in  a 
week  or  in  a year.  Certainly  no  careful  student  of  this  little 
book  will  allow  himself  to  be  imposed  upon  in  the  purchase  of 
an  animal  having  many  of  the  bad  points  represented  in  fig.  6. 
The  perfect  horse  (fig.  5)  you  will  not  expect  to  meet  every  day. 


24:  Domestic  Animals. 

A badly  formed  horse  is  not  profitable  for  any  purpose; 
because,  if  so  formed,  they  are  either  clumsy,  inactive,  dull 
in  mind,  or  tender  and  easily  broken  down.  It  costs  just  as 
much  to  breed,  raise,  and  keep  a poor  horse  as  a good  one,  and 
the  poor  one  is  low  in  value  and  unsalable ; besides,  he  is  un- 
able to  do  good  service  in  any  sphere,  or  to  endure. 

We  copy  from  Lavater  six  heads  of  horses,  which  indicate 
Fig.  7.  different  temperaments  and  a great 

diversity  of  character  and  disposition. 
The  accompanying  remarks  are  from 
the  American  Phrenological  Jour- 
nal : 

“Fig.  7 has  a slow,  heavy  temper- 
ament ; is  without  spirit,  awkward  in 
motion,  lazy,  stupid  in  intellect,  diffi- 
cult to  teach,  bears  the  whip  and 
needs  it,  though  it  is  soon  forgotten.  He  is  too  lazy  to  hold  up 
his  ears  or  under  lip,  and  is  a 
regular  hog-necked,  heavy-footed 
animal. 

“Fig.  8 has  more  intelligence 
and  spirit,  a more  active  temper- 
ament, and  is  disposed  to  anger, 
will  not  bear  the  whip,  and  shows 
his  anger,  when  teased  or  irritated, 
in  a bold,  direct  onset  with  the 
teeth. 

“Fig.  9 is  a very  active  temperament;  is  a quick,  keen, 
Fig.  9.  active,  intelligent  animal,  but  is  sly, 

cunning,  mischievous,  and  trickish ; 
will  be  hard  to  catch  in  the  field,  in- 
clined to  slip  the  bridle,  will  be  a great 
shirk  in  double  harness,  and  will  re- 
quire a sharp  eye  and  steady  hand  to 
drive  him,  and  will  want  something 
besides  a frolicsome  boy  for  a master.” 


Fig.  8. 


The  Horse. 


2f 


“ Fig.  10  is  obstinate,  headstrong,  easily  irritated,  deceitful, 
and  savage ; will  be  bard  to  drive, 
unbandy,  unyielding,  sour-temper- 
ed,  bad  to  bick,  inclined  to  balk, 
disposed  to  fight  and  crowd  bis 
mate,  and  bite  and  kick  bis  driver.” 

“Fig.  11  has  a noble,  proud  dis- 
position, and  a lofty,  stately  car- 
riage, but  be  is  timid,  restive,  and 
easily  irritated  and  thrown  off  bis 
mental  balance.  Such  horses  should 
be  used  by  steady,  calm  men,  and  on  roads  and  in  business 
which  have  little  variety,  change,  or  means  of  excitement. 


Fig.  11. 


Fig.  12. 


“ Fig.  12  is  a calm,  self-possessed  animal,  with  a noble,  eleva- 
ted disposition,  trustworthy,  courageous,  good-tempered,  well 
adapted  to  family  use,  but  not  remarkable  for  sharpness  of 
Fig* 13-  mind  or  activity  of  body. 

“ Figs.  13  and  14  show  a 
great  contrast  in  shape  of 
head,  expression  of  coun- 
tenance, temperament,  dis- 
position, and  intelligence. 
The  first  is  a most  noble 
animal. 

“Fig.  13  is  broad  be- 
tween the  eyes,  full,  round- 
ed, and  prominent  in  the 


26 


Domestic  Animals. 


forehead,  indicating  benevolence  and  intellect ; broad  between 
the  ears,  showing  courage ; broad  between  the  eyes,  evincing 
quickness  of  perception,  memory,  and  capacity  to  learn.  He 
can  be  taught  almost  anything,  can  be  trusted,  and  loves  and 
trusts  man ; is  not  timid,  will  go  anywhere,  and  stand  without 
Fig- 14*  fastening  ; never  kicks,  bites, 

or  runs  away. 

“Fig.  14  shows  a marked 
contrast  with  fig.  13  in  almost 
every  respect ; his  narrow  and 
contracted  forehead  shows  a 
lack  of  intelligence,  kindness, 
and  tractability ; is  timid  and 
shy  in  harness,  vicious,  un- 
friendly, disposed  to  kick, 
bite,  balk,  or  run  away,  and 
is  fit  only  for  a mill  or  horse-boat.  For  all  general  uses  he 
should  be  avoided,  and  by  no  means  should  such  an  organiza- 
tion be  employed  for  breeding  purposes.” 


IV.— COLOR. 

W.  0.  Spooner,  author  of  several  veterinarian  works,  has  the 
following  remarks  on  color  as  a sign  of  other  qualities  in  the 
horse : 

“We  have  found  both  good  and  bad  horses  of  every  color, 
and  the  only  rule  we  can  admit  as  correct  is,  that  certain  colors 
denote  deficient  breeding,  and  therefore  such  animal  is  not 
likely  to  be  so  good  as  he  looks,  but  is  probably  deficient  in 
bottom  or  the  powers  of  endurance.  These  colors  are  black, 
which  prevails  so  much  with  cart-horses,  and  sorrel,  dun,  pie- 
bald, etc. ; the  possessors  of  which  come  from  the  North,  and 
possess  no  Eastern  blood.  Black  horses,  unless  evidently  high 
bred,  are  very  often  soft  and  sluggish,  with  breeding  insuf- 
ficient for  their  work;  the  pedigree  of  the  majority  of  them 
may  be  dated  from  the  plow-tail,  whatever  admixtures  there 
may  have  been  since.  White  hair  denotes  a thin  skin,  which 


The  Horse.  27 

is  objectionable  when  it  prevails  on  the  legs  of  horses,  as  such 


animals  are  more  disposed  to  swelled  legs  and  cracked  heels 


Fig.  16. 


Si  crtou  or  Hobre-b  Foot. 


than  others.  Bay  horses  with  black 
legs  are  greatly  esteemed,  yet  we 
have  known  many  determined  slugs 
of  this  hue.  Their  constitution  is, 
however,  almost  invariably  good. 
Chestnut  is  the  prevailing  color 
with  our  race-horses,  and  conse- 
quently chestnut  horses  are  gener- 
ally pretty  well  bred,  and  possess 
the  good  and  bad  qualities  which 
obtain  most  among  thorough-breds. 
The  Suffolk  cart-horse  is  also  dis- 
tinguished by  his  light  chestnut  col- 


28 


Domestic  Animals. 


or ; and  it  is  no  small  recommendation  to  find  that  this  breed 
has,  for  several  years  past,  carried  away  the  principal  prizes  at 
the  annual  shows  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England. 
Gray  is  a very  good  color,  and  generally  denotes  a considerable 
admixture  of  Eastern  blood.” 

V. — STABLES. 

We  condense  from  Stewart’s  admirable  “ Stable  Book”  the 
larger  portion  of  the  following  useful  hints  and  suggestions  in 
reference  to  stables  and  their  management. 

1.  Stables  as  they  Are. — Stable  architects  have  not  much  to 
boast  of.  When  left  to  themselves  they  seem  to  think  of  little 
beyond  shelter  and  confinement.  If  the  weather  be  kept  out 
and  the  horse  be  kept  in,  the  stable  is  sufficient.  If  light  and 
air  be  demanded,  the  doorway  will  admit  them,  and  other 
apertures  are  superfluous. 

The  majority  of  stables  have  been  built  with  little  regard  to 
the  comfort  and  health  of  the  horse.  Most  of  them  are  too 
small,  too  dark,  too  close,  or  too  open ; and  some  are  mere 
dungeons,  destitute  of  every  convenience. 

2.  Situation  of  Stables. — When  any  choice  exists,  a situation 
should  be  chosen  which  admits  of  draining,  shelter  from  the 
coldest  winds,  and  facility  of  access.  Damp  places  are  especially 
to  be  avoided.  It  is  in  damp  stables  that  we  expect  to  find 
horses  with  bad  eyes,  coughs,  greasy  heels,  swelled  legs,  mange, 
and  a long,  dry,  staring  coat,  which  no  grooming  can  cure. 
Take  every  precaution,  then,  against  dampness  in  your  stables. 

3.  Size  of  Stables. — They  are  seldom  too  large  in  proportion 
to  the  number  of  stalls ; but  are  often  made  to  hold  too  many 
horses.  Horses  require  pure  air  as  well  as  human  beings ; and 
the  process  of  breathing  has  the  same  effect  in  their  case  as  in 
ours — changing  it  to  that  poisonous  substance,  carbonic  acid 
gas.  With  twenty  or  thirty  horses  in  a single  apartment  no 
ordinary  ventilation  is  sufficient  to  keep  the  air  pure.  Large 
stables,  too,  are  liable  to  frequent  and  great  alterations  of  tem- 
perature. When  several  horses  are  out,  those  which  remain 


The  H ORSE. 


29 


are  often  rendered  uncomfortably  cold,  and  when  the  stable  is 
full  the  whole  are  fevered  or  excited  by  excess  of  heat.  Effi- 
cient ventilation — a very  important  object — is  also  much  more 
difficult  in  a large  than  in  a small  stable. 

In  width  the  stable  may  vary  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  feet ; 
and  in  length  it  must  have  six  feet  for  each  stall.  Large  cart- 
horses require  a little  more  room  both  in  length  and  breadth  of 
stable.  The  number  of  stalls  should  not  exceed  sixteen,  and  it 
would  be  better  if  there  were  only  eight. 

Double-rowed  stables,  or  those  in  which  the  stalls  occupy 
both  sides,  require  least  space,  and  for  horses  kept  at  full  work 
are  sufficiently  suitable,  but  for  carriage  horses  single-rowed 
stables  are  better.  If  the  double-rowed  are  used,  the  gangway 
should  be  wide,  to  prevent  the  horses  from  kicking  at  each 
other,  as  they  are  apt  to  do  when  they  grow  playful  from  half 
idleness. 

4.  Windows, — Windows  are  too  much  neglected  in  stables,  and 
where  they  exist  at  all  are  generally  too  few,  too  small,  and  ill 
placed.  Some  think  horses  do  not  require  light — that  they 
thrive  best  in  the  dark ; but  many  a horse  has  become  blind 
for  the  want  of  light  in  his  stable.  When  side  windows  can 
not  be  introduced,  a portion  of  the  hay  loft  must  be  sacrificed 
and  light  introduced  from  the  roof.  Side  windows  should  be 
so  arranged  that  the  light  will  not  fall  directly  upon  the  eyes 
of  the  horse. 

5.  Floors. — Stable  floors  may  be  of  stone,  brick,  plank,  or 
earth.  One  of  the  best  kinds  of  stable  floor,  where  the  soil  is 
dry,  is  made  of  a composition  of  lime,  ashes,  and  clay,  mixed 
up  in  equal  parts  into  a mortar  and  spread  from  twelve  to  fif- 
teen inches  deep  over  the  surface  of  the  ground  forming  the 
bottom  of  the  stable.  It  will  dry  in  ten  days  and  makes  a very 
smooth,  fine  flooring,  particularly  safe,  easy,  and  agreeable  for 
horses  to  stand  upon,  and  free  from  all  the  objections  to  stone, 
brick,  and  wood.* 


* A.  B.  Allen. 


30 


Domestic  Animals. 


6.  Draining . — A gutter  or  other  contrivance  for  carrying  off 
the  urine  should  always  be  made  in  a stable,  otherwise  it  will 
be  foul  and  damp.  It  should  be  conveyed  into  a tank  and  care- 
fully saved  as  manure. 

7.  Racks  and  Mangers . — These  should  be  so  placed  that  the 
horse  can  eat  from  them  with  ease.  The  face  of  the  rack  next 
the  horse  should  be  perpendicular,  or  as  nearly  so  as  possible. 
Sometimes  the  face  is  so  sloping  and  the  rack  so  high  that  the 
horse  has  to  turn  his  head  almost  upside  down  to  get  at  his  food. 

The  mangers  or  troughs  from  which  the  horse  eats  his  grain 
are  now  sometimes  made  of  cast  iron,  which  we  deem  a great 
improvement  over  wood.  The  manger  should  be  concave  and 
not  flat  at  the  bottom.  Mangers  are  generally  placed  too  low. 
The  bottom  should  be  from  three  feet  and  a half  to  four  feet 
from  the  ground,  according  to  the  height  of  the  horse. 

8.  Ventilation  of  Staples. — Impure  air,  as  we  have  already 
remarked,  is  hurtful  to  the  horse  as  well  as  to  the  human  being 
inducing  disease  and  shortening  life.  To  avoid  it  in  our  own 
case,  we  (sometimes!)  ventilate  our  houses.  If  we  would  have 
our  horses  healthy  we  must  do  the  same  for  the  stable.  Aper- 
tures, one  for  each  stall,  should  be  provided  for  carrying  off  the 
impure  air.  These  should  be  so  near  the  top  of  the  building  as 
practicable.  It  should  be  eight  or  ten  inches  square.  Smaller 
apertures  near  the  floor  or  not  far  from  the  horse’s  nostrils  will 
serve  to  admit  fresh  air.* 

- 9.  Warmth , etc. — If  you  wish  to  have  your  horses  thrive 
and  continue  healthy,  you  can  not  pay  too  much  attention  to 
their  comfort.  Their  stables  should  be  warm  in  winter  and 
cool  in  summer.  To  secure  these  conditions,  they  should  be 
properly  constrqcted.  [For  plans,  see  “ The  House.”]  To  keep 
stables  sufficiently  warm,  no  artificial  means  are  required.  It 
is  enough  that  the  outside  air,  except  so  much  as  is  required 
for  ventilation,  be  excluded  during  the  coldest  weather.  TV  arm 
blankets  should  of  course  be  used  at  the  same  time. 


* See  Chapter  on  Barns  and  Stables,  in  “ The  House  n 


The  Horse. 


31 


YL— FEEDING. 

1.  The  Best  Food  for  Horses. — Considerable  care  and  system 
are  necessary  in  feeding  horses,  so  as  to  keep  them  in  the  best 
health  and  the  highest  working  order. 

“ The  best  food  for  ordinary  working-horses  in  America,” 
A.  B.  Allen  says,  “is  as  much  good  hay  or  grass  as  they  will 
eat,  corn-stalks  or  blades,  or  for  the  want  of  these,  straw,  and 
a mixture  of  from  sixteen  to  twenty -four  quarts  per  day,  of 
about  half  and  half  of  oats  and  the  better  quality  of  wheat  bran. 
When  the  horse  is  seven  years  old  past,  two  to  four  quarts  of 
corn  or  hominy  or  meal  ground  from  the  corn  and  cob  is 
preferable  to  the  pure  grain.  Two  to  four  quarts  of  wheat, 
barley,  rye,  buckwheat,  peas,  or  beans,  either  whole  or  ground, 
may  be  substituted  for  the  corn.  A pint  of  oil  meal  or  a gill  of 
flax-seed  mixed  with  the  other  food  is  very  good  for  a relish,  es- 
pecially in  keeping  up  a healthy  system  and  the  bowels  open,  and 
in  giving  the  hair  a fine  glossy  appearance.  Potatoes  and 
other  roots,  unless  cooked,  do  not  seem  to  be  of  much  benefit 
in  this  climate,  especially  in  winter — they  lie  cold  upon  the 
stomach  and  subject  the  horse  to  scouring;  besides,  they  are 
too  watery  for  a hard-working  animal.  Corn  is  fed  too  much 
at  the  South  and  West.  It  makes  horses  fat,  but  can  not  give 
them  that  hard,  muscular  flesh  which  oats  do;  hence  their 
softness  and  want  of  endurance  in  general  work  and  on  the 
road,  in  comparison  with  Northern  and  Eastern  horses,  reared 
and  fed  on  oats  and  more  nutritious  grasses.” 

2.  Work  and  Digestion. — Slow  work  aids  digestion,  empties 
the  bow  els,  and  sharpens  the  appetite.  Hence  it  happens  that 
on  Sunday  night  and  Monday  morning  there  are  more  cases  of 
colic  and  founder  than  during  any  other  part  of  the  week. 
Horses  that  never  want  an  appetite  ought  not  to  have  an  un- 
limited allowance  of  hay  on  Sunday;  they  have  time  to 
eat  a great  deal  more  than  they  need,  and  the  torpid  state  of 
the  stomach  and  bowels,  produced  by  a day  of  idleness,  renders 
an  additional  quantity  very  dangerous.  Farm  and  cart  horses 
are  fed  immediately  before  commencing  their  labor,  and  the 


32  Domestic  Animals. 

appetite  with  which  they  return  shows  that  the  stomach  is  not 
full. 

During  fast  work  digestion  is  suspended.  In  the  general 
commotion  excited  by  violent  exertion,  the  stomach  can  hardly 
be  in  a favorable  condition  for  performing  its  duty.  The  blood 
circulates  too  rapidly  to  permit  the  formation  of  gastric  juice 
or  its  combination  with  the  food ; and  the  blood  and  the  nerv- 
ous influence  are  so  exclusively  concentrated  and  expended 
upon  the  muscular  system,  that  none  can  be  spared  for  carry- 
ing on  the  digestive  process. 

3.  Bulk  Essential . — Condensed  food  is  necessary  for  fast- 
working horses.  Their  food  must  be  in  less  compass  than  that 
of  the  farm  or  cart  horse.  But  to  this  condensation  there  are 
some  limits.  Grain  aflords  all,  and  more  than  all,  the  nutri- 
ment a horse  is  capable  of  consuming,  even  under  the  most 
extraordinary  exertion.  His  stomach  and  bowels  can  hold 
more  than  they  are  able  to  digest.  Something  more  than  nu- 
triment is  wanted.  The  bowels  must  suffer  a moderate  degree 
of  distension  ; more  than  a wholesome  allowance  of  gram  can 
produce. 

When  hay  is  very  dear  and  grain  cheap,  it  is  customary  in 
many  stables  to  give  less  than  the  usual  allowance  of  hay,  and 
more  grain.  The  alteration  is  sometimes  carried  too  far,  and 
is  often  made  too  suddenly.  The  horses  may  have  as  much 
grain  as  they  will  eat,  yet  it  does  not  suffice  without  fodder. 
Having  no  hay,  they  will  leave  the  grain  to  eat  the  litter. 
When  the  ordinary  fodder,  then,  is  very  dear,  its  place  must 
be  supplied  by  some  other  which  will  produce  a wholesome 
distension,  though  it  may  not  yield  so  much  nutriment.  Straw 
or  roots,  either  or  both,  may  be  used  in  such  cases.  The  ex- 
cessively tucked-up  flank,  and  the  horse’s  repeated  efforts  to 
eat  his  litter,  show  when  his  food  is  not  of  sufficient  bulk,  and 
this  indication  must  not  be  disregarded. 

4.  Quantity  of  Food. — The  quantity  of  food  may  be  insuffi- 
cient, or  it  may  be  in  excess.  The  consumption  is  influenced 
by  the  work,  the  weather,  the  horse’s  condition,  age,  temper, 


The  Horse.  33 

form,  and  health ; these  circumstances,  especially  the  work, 
must  regulate  the  allowance. 

When  the  horse  has  to  work  as  much  and  as  often  as  he  is 
able,  his  allowance  of  food  should  be  unlimited. 

When  the  work  is  such  as  to  destroy  the  legs  more  than  it 
exhausts  the  system,  the  food  must  be  given  with  some  restric- 
tion, unless  the  horse  be  a poor  eater. 

When  the  work  is  moderate,  or  less  than  moderate,  a good 
feeder  will  eat  too  much. 

When  the  weather  is  cold,  horses  that  are  much  exposed  to 
it  require  more  food  than  when  the  weather  is  warm. 

When  the  horse  is  in  good  working  condition,  he  needs  less 
food  than  while  he  is  only  getting  into  condition. 

Young  growing  horses  require  a little  more  food  than  those 
of  mature  age ; hut,  as  they  are  not  fit  for  full  work,  the  dif- 
ference is  not  great. 

Old  horses,  those  that  have  begun  to  decline  in  vigor,  require 
more  food  than  the  young  or  the  matured. 

Hot-tempered,  irritable  horses  seldom  feed  well ; but  those 
that  have  good  appetites  require  more  food  to  keep  them  in 
condition,  than  others  of  quiet  and  calm  disposition. 

Small-bellied,  narrow-chested  horses  require  more  food  than 
those  of  deep  and  round  carcass ; but  few  of  them  eat  enough 
to  maintain  them  in  condition  for  full  work. 

Lame,  greasy-heeled,  and  harness-galled  horses  require  an 
extra  allowance  of  food  to  keep  them  in  working  condition. 

Sickness,  fevers,  inflammations,  all  diseases  which  influence 
health  so  much  as  to  throw  the  horse  oif  w~ork,  demand,  with 
few  exceptions,  a spare  diet,  which,  in  general,  consists  of 
bran-mashes,  grass,  carrots,  and  hay.* 

5.  Watering. — This  is  a part  of  stable  management  little 
regarded  by  the  farmer.  He  lets  his  horses  loose  morning  and 
night,  and  they  go  to  the  nearest  pond  or  brook  and  drink  their 
fill,  and  no  harm  results,  for  they  obtain  that  kind  of  water 


* Stewart’s  Stable  Book. 
2* 


34 


Domestic  Animals. 


which  nature  designed  them  to  have,  in  a manner  prepared 
for  them  hy  some  unknown  influence  of  the  atmosphere,  as 
well  as  hy  the  deposition  of  many  saline  admixtures. 

The  difference  between  hard  and  soft  water  is  known  to 
every  one.  There  is  nothing  in  which  the  different  effect  of 
hard  and  soft  water  is  so  evident  as  in  the  stomach  and  di- 
gestive organs  of  the  horse.  Hard  water  drawn  fresh  from  the 
well  will  assuredly  make  the  coat  of  a horse  unaccustomed  to 
it  stare,  and  it  will  not  unfrequently  gripe  and  otherwise  injure 
him.  He  is  injured,  however,  not  so  much  by  the  hardness  of 
the  well-water  as  by  its  coldness — particularly  by  its  coldness 
in  summer,  and  when  it  is  in  many  degrees  below  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  atmosphere.  The  water  in  the  brook  and  the 
pond  being  warmed  by  long  exposure  to  the  air,  as  well  as 
having  become  soft,  the  horse  drinks  freely  of  it  without  danger. 

If  the  horse  were  watered  three  times  a day,  and  especially 
in  summer,  he  would  often  be  saved  from  the  sad  torture  of 
thirst,  and  from  many  a disease.  Whoever  has  observed  the 
eagerness  with  which  the  over-worked  horse,  hot  and  tired, 
plunges  his  muzzle  into  the  pail,  and  the  difficulty  of  stop- 
ping him  until  he  has  drained  the  last  drop,  may  form  some 
idea  of  what  he  had  previously  suffered,  and  will  not  won- 
der at  the  violent  spasms,  and  inflammation,  and  sudden 
death  that  often  result.  There  is  a prejudice  in  the  minds  of 
many  persons  against  the  horse  being  fully  supplied  with  water. 
They  think  that  it  injures  his  wind,  and  disables  him  for  quick 
and  hard  work.  If  he  is  galloped,  as  he  too  often  is,  immedi- 
ately after  drinking,  his  wind  may  be  irreparably  injured ; but 
if  he  were  oftener  suffered  to  satiate  his  thirst  at  the  intervals 
of  rest  he  would  be  happier  and  better.  It  is  a fact  unsuspect- 
ed by  those  who  have  not  carefully  observed  the  horse,  that 
if  he  has  frequent  access  to  water  he  will  not  drink  so  much 
in  the  course  of  the  day  as  another  will  do,  who,  to  cool  his 
parched  mouth,  swallows  as  fast  as  he  can  and  knows  not 
when  to  stop. 

On  a journey  a horse  should  be  liberally  supplied  with 


The  Horse. 


35 


water.  When  he  is  a little  cooled,  two  or  three  quarts  may  be 
given  to  him,  and  after  that  his  feed.  Before  he  has  finished 
his  corn,  two  or  three  quarts  more  may  be  offered.  He  will 
take  no  harm  if  this  is  repeated  three  or  four  times  during  a long 
and  hot  day.* 

VII.— GENERAL  MANAGEMENT. 

1.  Air. — We  have  spoken  of  the  necessity  of  ventilation. 
Hear  what  that  great  authority,  Youatt,  says : 

“ If  the  stable  is  close,  the  air  will  not  only  be  hot  but  foul. 
The  breathing  of  every  animal  contaminates  it ; and  when  in 
the  course  of  the  night,  with  every  aperture  stopped,  it  passes 
again  and  again  through  the  lungs,  the  blood  can  not  undergo 
its  proper  and  healthy  change ; digestion  will  not  be  so  per- 
fectly performed,  and  all  the  functions  of  life  are  injured.  Let 
the  owner  of  a valuable  horse  think  of  his  passing  twenty  or 
twenty-two  out  of  the  twenty-four  hours  in  this  debilitating 
atmosphere ! Nature  does  wonders  in  enabling  every  animal 
to  accommodate  itself  to  the  situation  in  which  it  is  placed, 
and  the  horse  that  lives  in  the  stable-oven  suffers  less  from  it 
than  would  scarcely  be  conceived  possible:  but  he  does  not, 
and  can  not,  possess  the  power  and  the  hardihood  which  he 
would  acquire  under  other  circumstances. 

u The  air  of  the  improperly  close  and  heated  stable  is  still 
further  contaminated  by  the  urine  and  dung,  which  rapidly 
ferment  there,  and  give  out  stimulating  and  unwholesome 
vapors.  When  a person  first  enters  an  ill-managed  stable,  and 
especially  early  in  the  morning,  he  is  annoyed  not  only  by  the 
heat  of  the  confined  air,  but  by  a pungent  smell,  resembling 
hartshorn ; and  can  he  be  surprised  at  the  inflammation  of  the 
eyes,  and  the  chronic  cough,  and  the  t lisease  of  the  lungs,  by 
which  the  animal,  who  has  been  all  night  ihut  up  in  this  vitia- 
ted atmosphere,  is  often  attacked;  or  if  glanders  and  farcy 
should  occasionally  break  out  in  such  stables  ? It  has  been 
ascertained  by  chemical  experiment  that  the  urine  of  the  horse 


* Youatt. 


36 


Domestic  Animals. 


contains  in  it  an  exceedingly  large  quantity  of  hartshorn;  and 
not  only  so,  hut  that,  influenced  by  the  heat  of  a crowded 
stable,  and  possibly  by  other  decompositions  that  are  going  for- 
ward at  the  same  time,  this  ammoniacal  vapor  begins  to  be 
rapidly  given  out  almost  immediately  after  the  urine  is  voided.” 

ti.  Litter . — The  facts  just  stated  in  reference  to  the  plenti- 
ful escape  of  ammoniacal  gas  from  the  urine,  show  the  necessity 
of  frequently  removing  the  litter  which  is  soon  saturated  with 
it.  It  rapidly  putrefies,  emitting  noisome  odors  and  contami- 
nating the  air.  Everything  hastening  decomposition  should  be 
carefully  removed  where  life  and  health  are  to  be  preserved. 
Litter  that  has  been  much  wetted  and  has  begun  to  decay 
should  be  swept  out  every  morning. 

No  heap  of  fermenting  dung  should  be  suffered  to  remain 
during  the  day  in  the  corner  or  any  part  of  the  stable. 

3.  Grooming. — Of  this  little  need  be  said  to  the  farmer  in 
reference  to  his  working  horses,  since  custom,  and  apparently 
without  ill  effect,  has  allotted  to  them  so  little  of  the  comb 
and  brush.  u The  animal  that  is  worked  all  day  and  turned 
out  at  night,”  Youatt  says,  “ requires  little  more  to  be  done  to 
him  than  to  have  the  dirt  brushed  off  his  limbs.  Kegular 
grooming,  by  rendering  his  skin  more  sensible  to  the  alteration 
of  temperature  and  the  inclemency  of  the  weather,  would  be 
prejudicial.  The  horse  that  is  altogether  turned  out,  needs  no 
grooming.  The  dandruff  or  scurf,  which  accumulates  at  the 
roots  of  the  hair,  is  a provision  of  nature  to  defend  him  from 
the  wind  and  the  cold. 

“It  is  to  the  stabled  horse,  highly  fed  and  little  or  irreg- 
ularly worked,  that  grooming  is  of  so  much  consequence. 
Good  rubbing  with  the  brush  or  the  curry-comb  opens  the 
pores  of  the  skin,  circulates  the  blood  to  the  extremities  of 
the  body,  produces  free  and  healthy  perspiration,  and  stands  in 
the  room  of  exercise.  No  horse  will  carry  a fine  coat  without 
either  unnatural  heat  or  dressing.  They  both  effect  the  same 
purpose ; they  both  increase  the  insensible  perspiration ; but 
the  first  does  it  at  the  expense  of  health  and  strength,  while 


The  House. 


37 


- the  second,  at  the  same  time  that  it  produces  a glow  on  the 
skin  and  a determination  of  blood  to  it,  rouses  all  the  energies 
of  the  frame.  It  would  be  well  for  the  proprietor  of  the  horse 
if  he  were  to  insist — and  to  see  that  his  orders  are  really  obeyed 
— that  the  fine  coat  in  which  he  and  his  groom  so  much  delight 
is  produced  by  honest  rubbing,  and  not  by  a heated  stable  and 
thick  clothing,  and,  most  of  all,  not  by  stimulating  or  injurious 
spices.  The  horse  should  be  regularly  dressed  every  day,  in 
addition  to  the  grooming  that  is  necessary  after  work. 

“ When  the  weather  will  permit  the  horse  to  be  taken  out, 
he  should  never  be  groomed  in  the  stable,  unless  he  is  an 
animal  of  peculiar  value,  or  placed  for  a time  under  peculiar 
circumstances.  Without  dwelling  on  the  want  of  cleanliness, 
when  the  scurf  and  dust  that  are  brushed  from  the  horse  lodge 
in  his  manger  and  mingle  with  his  food,  experience  teaches, 
that  if  the  cold  is  not  too  great,  the  animal  is  braced  and  invig- 
orated to  a degree  that  can  not  be  attained  in  the  stable,  from 
being  dressed  in  the  open  air.  There  is  no  necessity,  however, 
for  half  the  punishment  which  many  a groom  inflicts  upon  the 
horse  in  the  act  of  dressing ; and  particularly  od  one  whose 
skin  is  thin  and  sensible.  The  curry-comb  should  at  all  times 
be  lightly  applied.  With  many  horses,  its  use  may  be  almost 
dispensed  with ; and  even  the  brush  needs  not  to  be  so  hard, 
nor  the  points  of  the  bristles  so  irregular,  as  they  often  are. 
A soft  brush,  with  a little  more  weight  of  the  hand,  will  be 
equally  effectual  and  a great  deal  more  pleasant  to  the  horse. 
A hair-cloth,  while  it  will  seldom  irritate  and  tease,  will  be 
almost  sufficient  with  horses  that  have  a thin  skin,  and  that 
have  not  been  neglected.  After  all,  it  is  no  slight  task  to  dress 
a horse  as  it  ought  to  be  clone.  It  occupies  no  little  time,  and 
demands  considerable  patience  as  well  as  dexterity.  It  will  be 
readily  ascertained  whether  a horse  has  been  well  dressed,  by 
rubbing  him  with  one  of  the  fingers.  A greasy  stain  will  detect 
the  idleness  of  the  groom.  When,  however,  the  horse  is  chang- 
ing his  coat,  both  the  curry-comb  and  the  brush  should  be 
used  as  lightly  as  possible. 


38 


Domestic  Animals. 


“Whoever  would  be  convinced  of  the  benefit  of  friction  to 
the  horse’s  skin  and  to  the  horse  generally,  needs  only  to  ob- 
serve the  effects  produced  by  well  hand-rubbing  the  legs  of  a 
tired  horse.  While  every  enlargement  subsides,  and  the  pain- 
ful stiffness  disappears,  and  the  legs  attain  their  natural  warmth 
and  become  fine,  the  animal  is  evidently  and  rapidly  reviving ; 
lie  attacks  his  food  with  appetite,  and  then  quietly  lies  down 
to  rest.” 

4.  j Exercise, — Of  this  the  farm  horse  generally  has  enough. 
His  work  is  tolerably  regular,  not  exhausting,  and  he  generally 
maintains  his  health  and  has  his  life  prolonged  to  an  extent 
rare  among  horses  of  “ leisure.”  But  a gentleman’s  or  a trades- 
man’s horse  suffers  a great  deal  more  from  idleness  than  he 
does  from  work.  A stable-fed  horse  should  have  two  hours’ 
exercise  every  day,  if  he  is  to  be  kept  free  from  disease.  Noth- 
ing of  extraordinary,  or  even  of  ordinary,  labor  can  be  effected 
on  the  road  or  in  the  field  without  sufficient  and  regular  exercise. 
It  is  this  alone  which  can  give  energy  to  the  system  or  devel- 
ope  the  powers  of  any  animal.  The  animal  that,  with  the 
usual  stable  feeding,  stands  idle  for  three  or  four  days,  as  is  the 
case  in  many  establishments,  must  suffer.  He  is  predisposed  to 
fever,  or  to  grease,  or,  most  of  all,  to  diseases  of  the  foot ; and 
if,  after  three  or  four  days  of  inactivity  he  is  ridden  far  and 
fast  he  is  almost  sure  to  have  inflammation  of  the  lungs  or  of 
the  feet. 

VIII — YICES  AND  BAD  HABITS. 

The  vices  and  bad  habits  of  the  horse,  like  those  of  his  mas 
ter,  are  oftener  than  otherwise  the  consequence  of  a faulty  ed- 
ucation. We  are  convinced  that  innately  vicious  horses  are 
comparatively  few.  We  condense  from  Youatt  the  following 
hints  on  this  subject. 

1.  Restiveness. — At  the  head  of  all  the  vices  of  the  horse  is 
restiveness,  the  most  annoying  and  the  most  dangerous  of  all. 
It  is  the  produce  of  bad  temper  and  worse  education;  and, 
like  all  other  habits  founded  on  nature  and  stamped  by  edu- 
cation, it  is  inveterate.  Whether  it  appears  in  the  form  of 


The  ITorse. 


39 


kicking  or  rearing,  plunging  or  bolting,  or  in  any  way  that 
threatens  danger  to  the  rider  or  the  horse,  it  rarely  admits  of 
cure.  A determined  rider  may,  to  a certain  extent,  subjugate 
the  animal ; or  the  horse  may  have  his  favorites,  or  form  his 
attachments,  and  with  some  particular  person  he  may  be  com- 
paratively or  perfectly  manageable ; but  others  can  not  long 
depend  upon  him,  and  even  his  master  is  not  always  sure  of 
him. 

2.  Backing  or  Balking. — Some  horses  have  the  habit  of 
backing  at  first  starting,  and  that  more  from  playfulness  than 
desire  of  mischief.  A moderate  application  of  the  whip  will 
usually  be  effectual.  Others,  even  after  starting,  exhibit  con- 
siderable obstinacy  and  viciousness.  This  is  frequently  the 
effect  of  bad  breaking. 

A large  and  heavy  stone  should  be  put  behind  the  wheel  be- 
fore starting,  when  the  horse,  finding  it  more  difficult  to  back 
than  to  go  forward,  will  gradually  forget  this  unpleasant  trick. 
It  will  likewise  be  of  advantage  as  often  as  it  can  be  managed, 
so  to  start  that  the  horse  shall  have  to  back  up-hill.  The  dif- 
ficulty of  accomplishing  this  will  soon  make  him  readily  go 
forward.  A little  coaxing  or  leading  will  assist  in  accomplish- 
ing the  cure. 

3.  Siting. — This  is  perhaps  sometimes  the  consequence  of 
natural  ferocity,  but  is  more  frequently  acquired  from  the  fool- 
ish teasing  play  of  hostlers  and  stable-boys.  At  first  his  biting 
is  half  playful  and  half  in  earnest,  but  finally  becomes  habitual 
and  degenerates  into  absolute  viciousness.  It  is  seldom  that 
anything  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  cure.  Kindness  will  aggra- 
vate the  evil  and  no  degree  of  severity  will  correct  it.  u I have 
seen,”  Professor  Stuart  says,  u biters  punished  until  they  trem- 
bled in  every  joint  and  were  ready  to  drop,  but  have  never  in 
any  case  known  them  cured  by  this  treatment  or  by  any  other. 
The  lash  is  forgotten  in  an  hour,  and  the  horse  is  as  ready  and 
determined  to  repeat  the  offense  as  before.  He  appears  unable 
to  resist  the  temptation,  and  in  its  worst  form  biting  is  a spe- 
cies of  insanity.” 


40 


Domestic  Animals. 


But  if  biting  can  not  be  cured  it  may  almost  always  be  pre- 
vented, and  every  proprietor  of  horses,  while  he  insists  upon 
gentle  and  humane  treatment  of  his  animals,  should  strictly 
forbid  this  horse-play. 

4.  Kicking. — This,  as  a vice,  is  another  consequence  of  the 
culpable  habit  of  grooms  and  stable-boys  of  teasing  the  horse. 
That  which  is  at  first  an  indication  of  annoyance  at  the  pinch- 
ing and  tickling  of  the  groom,  and  without  any  design  to  injure, 
gradually  becomes  the  expression  of  anger,  and  the  effort  to  do 
mischief.  The  horse,  likewise,  too  soon  recognizes  the  least 
appearance  of  timidity,  and  takes  advantage  of  the  discovery. 
There  is  no  cure  for  this  vice  after  it  has  become  a confirmed 
habit,  and  he  can  not  be  justified  who  keeps  a kicking  horse 
in  his  stable.  Before  the  habit  is  inveterately  established,  a 
thorn-bush  or  a piece  of  furze  fastened  against  the  partition  or 
post  will  sometimes  effect  a cure.  When  the  horse  finds  that 
he  is  pretty  severely  pricked  he  will  not  long  continue  to 
punish  himself. 

5.  Bearing. — This  sometimes  results  from  playfulness,  car- 
ried, indeed,  to  an  unpleasant  and  dangerous  extent ; but  it  is 
oftener  a desperate  and  occasionally  successful  effort  to  unhorse 
the  rider,  and  consequently  a vice.  The  horse  that  has  twice 
decidedly  and  dangerously  reared  should  never  be  trusted 
again,  unless,  indeed,  it  was  the  fault  of  the  rider,  who  had 
been  using  a deep  curb  and  a sharp  bit.  Some  of  the  best 
horses  will  contend  against  these,  and  then  rearing  may  be 
immediately  and  permanently,  cured  by  using  a snaffle  bridle 
alone. 

6.  Banning  Away. — There  is  no  certainty  of  cure  for  this 
vice.  The  only  method  which  affords  any  probability  of  suc- 
cess is,  to  ride  or  drive  such  a horse  with  a strong  curb  and 
sharp  bit ; to  have  him  always  firmly  in  hand ; and  if  he  will 
run  away  and  the  place  will  admit  of  it,  to  give  him  (sparing 
neither  curb  nor  whip)  a great  deal  more  running  than  he  likes. 

7.  Overreaching. — This  unpleasant  noise,  known  also  by  the 
term  u clicking,”  arises  from  the  toe  of  the  hind-foot  knocking 


The  II  OESE. 


41 


against  the  shoe  of  the  fore-foot.  If  the  animal  is  young,  the 
action  of  the  horse  may  be  materially  improved ; otherwise 
nothing  can  be  done,  except  to  keep  the  toe  of  the  hind-foot  as 
short  and  as  round  as  it  can  safely  be,  and  to  bevel  off  and  round 
the  toe  of  the  shoe,  like  that  which  has  been  worn  off  by  a 
stumbling  horse,  and,  perhaps,  to  lower  the  heel  of  the  fore-foot 
a little. 

8.  Rolling. — Borne  horses  have  the  habit  of  rolling  in  the 
stable,  by  which  they  are  liable  to  get  cast,  bruised,  and  half 
strangled.  The  only  remedy  is  to  tie  such  a horse  with  just 
length  of  halter  enough  to  lie  down,  but  not  allow  of  his  resting 
his  head  on  the  ground.  This  is  an  unpleasant  means  of  cure, 
and  not  always  a safe  one. 

9.  Shying . — This  vice  is  often  the  result  of  cowardice,  or 
playfulness,  or  want  of  work,  but  at  other  times  it  is  the  con- 
sequence of  a defect  of  sight ; and  in  its  treatment  it  is  of  great 
importance  to  distinguish  between  these  different  causes.  For 
the  last,  every  allowance  must  be  made,  and  care  must  be  taken 
that  the  fear  of  correction  is  not  associated  with  the  imagined 
existence  of  some  terrifying  object.  The  severe  use  of  the  whip 
and  the  spur  can  not  do  good  here,  and  are  likely  to  aggravate 
the  vice  ten-fold.  A word  half  encouraging  and  half  scolding 
will  tell  the  horse  that  there  was  nothing  to  fear,  and  will  give 
him  confidence  in  his  rider  on  a future  occasion. 

The  shying  from  skittishness  or  affectation  is  quite  a different 
affair,  and  must  be  conquered : but  how  ? Severity  is  altogether 
out  of  place.  If  he  is  forced  into  contact  with  the  object  by 
dint  of  correction,  the  dread  of  punishment  will  afterward  be 
associated  with  that  object,  and  on  the  next  occasion  his  start- 
ings will  be  more  frequent  and  more  dangerous.  The  way  to 
cure  him  is  to  go  on,  turning  as  little  as  possible  out  of  the  road, 
giving  a harsh  word  or  two  and  a gentle  touch,  and  then  taking 
no  more  notice  of  the  matter.  After  a few  times,  whatever 
may  have  been  the  object  which  he  chose  to  select  as  the  pre- 
tended cause  of  affright,  he  will  pass  it  almost  without  notice. 

10.  Slipping  the  Halter. — Many  horses  are  so  clever  at  this 


42 


Domestic  Animals. 


trick  that  s .arcely  a night  passes  without  their  getting  loose. 
It  is  a habit  which  may  lead  to  dangerous  results,  and  should  be 
cured  at  once  by  some  extra  means  of  securing  the  halter  in  its 
place,  or  by  a strap  attached  to  it  and  buckled  securely  (but 
not  tight  enough  to  be  a serious  inconvenience),  around  the 
neck. 

11.  Tripping. — He  must  be  a skillful  practitioner  or  a mere 
pretender  who  promises  to  remedy  this  habit.  If  it  arises  from 
a heavy  fore-hand  and  the  fore-legs  being  too  much  under  the 
horse,  no  one  can  alter  the  natural  frame  of  the  animal ; if  it 
proceeds  from  tenderness  of  the  foot,  grogginess,  or  old  lameness, 
these  ailments  are  seldom  cured.  Also,  if  it  is  to  be  traced  to 
habitual  carelessness  and  idleness,  no  whipping  will  rouse  the 
drone.  A known  stumbler  should  never  be  ridden  or  driven 
by  any  one  who  values  his  safety  or  his  life. 

If  the  stumbler  has  the  foot  kept  as  short  and  the  toe  pared 
as  close  as  safety  will  permit,  and  the  shoe  is  rounded  at  the 
toe,  or  has  that  shape  given  to  it  which  it  naturally  acquires  in 
a fortnight  from  the  peculiar  action  of  such  a horse,  the  animal 
may  not  stumble  quite  so  much ; or  if  the  disease  which  pro- 
duced the  habit  can  be  alleviated,  some  trifling  good  may  be 
done,  but  in  almost  every  case  a stumbler  should  be  got  rid  of, 
or  put  to  slow  and  heavy  work.  If  the  latter  alternative  is 
adopted,  he  may  trip  as  much  as  he  pleases,  for  the  weight  of 
the  load  and  the  motion  of  the  other  horses  will  keep  him  upor 
his  legs. 

IX.— HINTS  TO  BUYERS. 

1.  Warranty. — A man  should  have  a more  perfect  knowledge 
of  horses  than  falls  to  the  lot  of  most  men,  and  a perfect  knowl- 
edge of  the  seller  also,  who  ventures  to  buy  a horse  without  a 
warranty.  This  warranty  is  usually  embodied  in  the  receipt, 
which  may  be  expressed  as  follows : 

Received  at  Louisville,  August  10th,  1858,  from  O.  D.,  one  hundred  dollars 
for  a gray  horse  warranted  only  five  years  old,  sound,  free  from  vice,  and  quiet 
to  ride  or  drive.  A*  Y. 

“A  receipt,  including  merely  the  word  ‘warranted,’  ex- 


The  IIoese. 


43 


tends  only  to  soundness ; 1 warranted  sound’  goes  no  further ; 
the  age,  freedom  from  vice,  and  quietness  to  ride  and  drive, 
should  be  especially  named.  This  warranty  comprises  every 
cause  of  unsoundness  that  can  he  detected,  or  that  lurks  in  the 
constitution  at  the  time  of  sale,  and  to  every  vicious  habit  that 
the  animal  has  hitherto  shown.  To  establish  a breach  of  war- 
ranty, and  to  be  enabled  to  tender  a return  of  the  horse  and 
recover  the  difference  of  price,  the  purchaser  must  prove  that 
it  was  unsound  or  viciously  disposed  at  the  time  of  sale. 

u 1 No  price  will  imply  a warranty  or  be  equivalent  to  one ; 
there  must  be  an  express  warranty.  A fraud  must  be  proved 
in  the  seller,  in  order  that  the  buyer  may  be  enabled  to  return 
the  horse  or  maintain  an  action  for  the  price.  The  warranty 
should  be  given  at  the  time  of  sale.  A warranty,  or  a promise 
to  warrant  the  horse,  given  at  any  period  antecedent  to  the 
sale,  is  invalid ; for  horse  flesh  is  a very  perishable  commodity, 
and  the  constitution  and  usefulness  of  the  animal  may  undergo 
a considerable  change  in  the  space  of  a few  days.  A warranty 
after  the  sale  is  invalid,  for  it  is  given  without  any  legal  con- 
sideration. In  order  to  complete  the  purchase,  there  must  be 
a transfer  of  the  animal,  or  a memorandum  of  agreement,  or 
the  payment  of  the  earnest-money.  The  least  sum  will  suffice 
for  earnest.  No  verbal  promise  to  buy  or  to  sell  is  binding 
without  one  of  these.  The  moment  either  of  these  is  effected, 
the  legal  transfer  of  property  or  delivery  is  made,  and  what- 
ever may  happen  to  the  horse,  the  seller  retains,  or  is  entitled 
to,  the  money.  If  the  purchaser  exercises  any  act  of  owner- 
ship, by  using  the  animal  without  leave  of  the  vender,  or  by 
having  any  operation  performed-  or  any  medicine  given  to  him, 
he  makes  him  his  own. 

“If  a person  buys  a horse  warranted  sound,  and  discovering 
no  defect  in  him,  and  relying  on  the  warranty,  re-sells  him, 
and  the  unsoundness  is  discovered  by  the  second  purchaser, 
and  the  horse  returned  to  the  first  purchaser,  or  an  action  com- 
menced against  him,  he  has  his  claim  on  the  first  seller,  and 
may  demand  of  him  not  only  the  price  of  the  horse,  or  the  dif- 


44  Domestic  Animals. 

ference  in  value,  but  every  expense  that  may  have  been  in- 
curred. 

w Absolute  exchanges  of  one  horse  for  another,  or  a sum  of 
money  being  paid  in  addition  by  one  of  the  parties,  stand  on 
the  same  ground  as  simple  sales.  If  there  is  a warranty  on 
either  side,  and  that  is  broken,  an  action  may  be  maintained : 
if  there  be  no  warranty,  deceit  must  be  proved.” 

2.  What  constitutes  Unsoundness? — u That  horse  is  sound  in 
whom  there  is  no  disease,  and  no  alteration  of  structure  that 
impairs  or  is  likely  to  impair  his  natural  usefulness.  The  horse 
is  unsound  that  labors  under  disease,  or  has  some  alteration  of 
structure  which  does  interfere,  or  is  likely  to  interfere,  with 
his  natural  usefulness.  The  term  4 natural  usefulness ’ must 
be  borne  in  mind.  One  horse  may  possess  great  speed,  but  is 
soon  knocked  up ; another  will  work  all  day,  but  can  not  be 
got  beyond  a snail’s  pace ; a third  with  a heavy  fore-hand  is 
liable  to  stumble,  and  is  continually  putting  to  hazard  the  neck 
of  his  rider ; another,  with  an  irritable  constitution  and  a loose, 
washy  form,  loses  his  appetite  and  begins  to  scour  if  a little 
extra  work  is  exacted  from  him.  The  term  unsoundness  must 
not  be  applied  to  either  of  these  ; it  would  be  opening  far  too 
widely  a door  to  disputation  and  endless  wrangling.  The  buy- 
er can  discern,  or  ought  to  know,  whether  the  form  of  the 
horse  is  that  which  will  render  him  likely  to  suit  his  purpose, 
and  he  should  try  him  sufficiently  to  ascertain  his  natural 
strength,  endurance,  and  manner  of  going.  Unsoundness,  we 
repeat,  has  reference  only  to  disease,  or  to  that  alteration  of 
structure  which  is  connected  with,  or  will  produce,  disease  and 
lessen  the  usefulness  of  the  animal.”* 


* Youatt. 


Ihe  Ass  and  the  Mule. 


45 


II. 

THE  ASS  AND  THE  IDLE. 


0,  that  1 had  been  writ  down  an  ass  l— Dogberry. 

I.— THE  ASS. 

UFFON  has  well  observed  that  the  ass  is  de- 
spised and  neglected  only  because  we  possess  a 
more  noble  and  powerful  animal  in  the  horse, 
and  that  if  the  horse  were  unknown,  and  the 
care  and  attention  that  we  lavish  upon  him 
were  transferred  to  his  now  neglected  and  despised  rival,  the 
latter  would  he  increased  in  size  and  developed  in  mental  qual- 
ities to  an  extent  which  it  would  he  difficult  to  anticipate,  hut 
which  Eastern  travelers,  who  have  observed  both  animals  in 
their  native  climates,  and  among  nations  by  whom  they  are 
equally  valued,  and  the  good  qualities  of  each  justly  appreci- 
ated, assure  us  to  be  the  fact. 

The  character  and  habits  of  the  horse  and  the  ass  are  in 
many  respects  directly  opposed.  The  one  is  proud,  fiery,  im- 
petuous, nice  in  his  tastes,  and  delicate  in  his  constitution; 
subject,  like  a pampered  menial,  to  many  diseases,  and  having 
many  wants  and  habits  unknown  in  a state  of  nature.  The 
other,  on  the  contrary,  is  humble,  patient,  quiet,  and  hardy. 

For  food  the  ass  contents  himself  with  the  most  harsh  and 
disagreeable  herbs,  which  other  animals  will  scarcely  touch; 
in  the  choice  of  water  he  is,  however,  very  nice,  drinking  only 
that  which  is  perfectly  clear,  and  at  brooks  with  which  he  is 
acquainted. 

The  qualities  of  the  ass  as  a working  animal  are  almost  or 
quite  unknown  in  this  country,  but  in  other  lands  he  is  found 


46 


Domestic  Animals. 


very  serviceable  to  the  poor  who  are  not  able  to  buy  or  to  keep 
horses.  He  requires  very  little  care,  bears  correction  with 
firmness,  sustains  labor  and  hunger  with  patience,  and  is  sel- 
dom or  never  sick. 

The  varieties  of  the  ass,  in  countries  favorable  to  their  de- 
velopment, are  great.  In  Guinea  the  asses  are  large,  and  in 
shape  even  excel  the  native  horses.  The  asses  of  Arabia 
(Chardin  says)  are  perhaps  the  handsomest  animals  in  the 
world.  Their  coat  is  smooth  and  clean ; they  carry  the  head 
elevated;  and  have  fine  and  well-formed  legs,  which  they 
throw  out  gracefully  in  walking  or  galloping.  In  Persia  also 
they  are  finely  formed,  some  being  even  stately,  and  much  used 
in  draught  and  for  carrying  burdens,  while  others  are  more 
lightly  proportioned,  and  used  for  the  saddle  by  persons  of 
quality ; frequently  fetching  the  large  sum  of  400  livres ; and 
being  taught  a kind  of  ambling  pace,  are  richly  caparisoned 
and  used  by  the  rich  and  luxurious  nobles.* 

II.— THE  MULE. 

The  principal  objection  to  the  ass,  as  a beast  of  burden,  being 
his  small  size,  the  ingenuity  of  man  early  devised  means  to 
remedy  this  defect  by  crossing  him  with  the  horse ; thus  pro- 
ducing an  intermediate  animal  with  the  size  and  strength  of 
the  latter,  and  the  patience,  hardiness,  and  sure-footedness  cf 
the  former. 

The  mule  is  the  offspring  of  the  ass  and  the  mare,  or  the 
female  ass  and  the  horse.  In  the  latter  case  the  produce  is 
called  a jennet,  and  is  much  less  hardy,  and  therefore  rarely 
bred. 

Mules  are  much  used  in  warm  climates,  where  they  are  pre- 
ferred to  horses  for  many  purposes.  They  are  very  numerous 
in  our  Southern  States  and  not  uncommon  in  the  Middle  and 
Western  States. 

Kentucky  is  the  great  mule-breeding  State.  Many  thou- 


* Blane’s  Encyclopedia  of  Kural  Sports. 


The  Ass  and  the  Mule. 


47 


Bands  are  annually  raised  there  for  the  New  York  and  Southern 
markets.  A correspondent  of  the  American  Veterinary  Jour- 
nal says : 

“ The  mule  trade  is  one  of  the  largest  of  Kentucky,  and  af- 
fords one  of  her  chief  sources  of  revenue.  The  mule  is  fed  from 
weaning  time  (which  is  generally  at  the  age  of  five  or  six 
months)  to  the  full  extent  of  its  capacity  to  eat,  and  that, 
too,  on  oats  and  corn,  together  with  hay  and  fodder.  In  lieu 
of  the  long  food,  soiling  is  usually  adopted  in  the  summer,  as 
they  are  kept  confined  in  a pound  or  paddock,  containing  an 
acre  or  two  of  ground,  which  is  usually  partially  shaded,  in 
herds  of  one  hundred  or  one  hundred  and  fifty.  In  this  way 
they  are  kept  until  the  fall  after  they  are  two  years  old,  receiv- 
ing a sort  of  forcing  hot-house  treatment.  At  this  age  they 
are  taken  to  the  Southern  market,  not  always  by  the  feeder, 
hut  more  generally  by  the  speculator  or  trader ; there  they  are 
sold  to  the  planter  entirely  unbroken.  The  planters  are  too 
cautious  to  buy  a broken  mule,  lest  it  should  prove  to  he  an  an- 
tiquated, broken-down  beast,  fattened  up  and  sold  for  a young 
one — as  it  is  more  difficult  to  judge  of  his  age  than  that  of  a 
horse.  The  external  marks  of  time  and  service  are  not  gener- 
ally so  apparent  upon  him.  But  it  is  a small  job  to  break  a 
mule.  It  is  only  necessary  to  have  a steady  horse  to  work  him, 
with  a second  hand  to  drive  him  an  hour  or  two  to  keep  him 
up,  after  which  he  is  considered  ready  for  any  service  that  the 
farmer  may  require  of  him.  He  may  kick  once  or  twice,  hut 
is  unlike  the  spirited  horse,  who  when  he  commences  is  apt  to 
kick  himself  out  of  the  harness  before  he  stops. 

“ Persons  who  have  tried  them  on  the  farm  are  pleased  with 
them.  They  never  get  sick  and  rarely  get  lame,  will  do  as 
much  work  as  horses  which  will  cost  twice  as  much  money, 
and  at  the  same  time  will  subsist  on  less  and  inferior  food ; for 
a mule  will  work  very  well  on  wheat  straw  and  corn  shucks, 
whereas  the  horse  must  have  grain  as  well  as  a good  allowance 
of  long  food.  They  are  better  for  our  servants  to  handle,  as 
they  can  stand  neglect  and  violent  treatment  better  than  the 


48 


Domestic  Animals. 


horse,  and  a blemish,  such  as  the  loss  of  an  eye,  does  not 
impair  their  value  so  much  as  that  of  the  horse.” 

To  have  large  and  handsome  mules,  the  mare  should  he  of  a 
*arge  breed  and  well  proportioned,  with  rather  small  limbs,  a 
moderate  sized  head,  and  a good  forehead ; and  the  ass  should 
he  of  the  large  Spanish  breed. 


Cattle. 


49 


III. 

CATTLE. 


The  noble,  patient  ox  and  gentle  cow 
Kind  usage  claim  ; and  he’s  a brute  indeed. 

Unworthy  of  companionship  with  them, 

Who  with  neglect  or  cruelty  repays 
The  debt  he  owes  their  race. — Knox. 

I. — HISTORY 

F the  ox  tribe  ( Borides ) there  are  eight  species 
— the  ancient  bison  ( Bos  urus );  the  bison  or 
American  buffalo  (B.  bison) ; the  musk  ox  ( B . 
moschatus) ; the  gayal  (B.  frontalis) ; the  grunt- 
ing ox  ( B . grunniens) ; the  buffalo  of  Southern 
Africa  ( B . caffer) ; the  common  buffalo  (B.  bubulus) ; and  the 
common  domestic  ox  ( B . taurus).  It  is  with  the  last  only  that 
we  have  to  do  in  the  present  work. 

The  ox  has  been  domesticated  and  in  the  service  of  man 
from  the  remotest  antiquity.  The  Bible  informs  us  that  cattle 
were  kept  by  the  early  descendants  of  Adam  (Gen.  iv.  20). 
That  their  value  has  been  duly  appreciated  in  all  ages  and  in 
all  climates,  is  shown  by  authentic  history.  Both  the  Hindoos 
and  the  Egyptians  placed  the  ox  among  their  deities ; and  no 
quadruped  certainly  is  more  worthy  to  be  thus  exalted. 

The  parent  race  of  the  ox  is  supposed  by  some  to  have 
been  much  larger  than  any  of  the  present  varieties.  The  urus, 
in  his  wild  state  at  least,  was  an  enormous  and  fierce  animal, 
and  ancient  legends  have  thrown  around  him  an  air  of  mys- 
tery. In  almost  every  part  of  the  continent  of  Europe  and  in 
England,  skulls,  evidently  belonging  to  cattle,  have  been  found 
far  exceeding  in  size  those  of  the  present  day  ; but  these  may 
have  belonged  to  exceptional  individuals. 


50 


Domestic  Animals. 


Of  the  original  race  of  British  cattle  no  satisfactory  descrip- 
tion occurs  in  any  ancient  author ; but  it  is  believed  that,  with 
occasional  exceptions,  they  possessed  no  great  hulk  or  beauty. 
They  were  doubtless  numerous,  for  Caesar  tells  us,  in  his  Com- 
mentaries, that  the  ancient  Britons  neglected  tillage  and  lived 
on  milk  and  flesh.  It  was  that  occupation  and  mode  of  life 
which  suited  their  state  of  society.  A few  specimens  of  the 
pure  ancient  breed,  descendants  of  cattle  which  escaped  from 
their  masters  centuries  since  and  became  wild,  may  now  be 
seen  in  the  parks  of  gentlemen  in  England.  They  are  very 
wild,  and  are  said  to  be  untamable. 

The  breeds  of  cattle  in  England  are  remarkable  for  their 
numerous  varieties,  caused  by  the  almost  endless  crossings  of 
one  breed  with  another. 

The  breeds  of  cattle  now  found  in  America  are  all  derived 
from  Europe,  and  those  of  the  United  States  mainly  from  Eng- 
land. The  early  importations  were  of  inferior  grades,  as  the 
grand  improvements  in  British  cattle,  commenced  by  Bake- 
well,  date  back  no  farther  than  about  the  time  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. In  New  England  the  primitive  stock  is  believed  to  have 
undergone  considerable  improvement,  while  in  parts  of  the 
Middle  and  Southern  States  it  has  undoubtedly  deteriorated. 

II.— BEEEDS. 

A strict  classification  of  the  numerous  breeds  of  cattle  now 
existing  in  the  United  States  would  be  difficult.  Youatt 
arranges  British  cattle  under  three  heads,  according  to  the  com- 
parative size  of  their  horns — the  Long  Horns,  the  Short  Horns, 
and  the  Middle  Horns.  These  classes  are  all  represented  here. 
The  prevailing  stock  of  the  Eastern  States  is  believed  to  be 
derived  from  the  Middle  Horns  or  North  Devons,  most  of  the 
excellent  marks  and  qualities  of  which  they  possess.  They 
have  frequently  been  called  the  American  Devons,  and  are 
highly  esteemed.  The  most  valuable  working  oxen  are  of  this 
breed,  which  also  contributes  largely  to  the  best  displays  of 
beef  found  in  the  markets  of  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Bos* 


Cattle 


51 


ton.  The  Long  Horns  or  Craven  cattle,  although  not  numer- 
ous, are  occasionally  met  with.  The  Short  Horns  are  of  more 
recent  introduction,  but  this  breed,  with  various  crosses,  is  now 
perhaps  the  predominant  one  of  the  country. 

It  will  be  profitable  to  speak  somewhat  in  detail,  although 
briefly,  of  the  several  breeds — at  least  the  more  prominent  ones 
— and  we  will  begin  with 

Fig.  IT. 


A Devon  Bell. 

1.  The  Devon  Breed. — This  is  a handsome  and  valuable 
breed.  The  bull  should  have  yellow  horns ; clear,  bright,  and 
prominent  eyes  ; small,  flat,  indented  forehead ; a fine  muzzle  ; 
small  cheek  ; a clear  yellow  nose  ; a high  and  open  nostril ; a 
thick  neck,  with  the  hair  about  the  head  curled ; a straight 
back ; and  be  well  set  upon  the  legs.  The  head  of  the  ox  is 
smaller,  otherwise  he  does  not  differ  materially  in  shape  from 


52 


Domestic  Animals 


the  bull.  He  is  quicker  in  his  motions  than  any  other  ox,  and 
is  generally  docile,  good  tempered,  and  honest. 

The  cow  is  much  smaller  than  the  bull,  but  roomy  for  breed- 
ing, and  distinguished  for  her  clear,  round  eye  and  general  beau- 
ty of  features.  With  regard  to  the  comparative  value  of  the 
Devon  cows  for  the  dairy  there  is  much  difference  of  opinion, 
it  being  pretty  generally  asserted  that  their  acknowledged 
grazing  qualities  render  them  unfit  for  the  dairy,  and  that  their 
milk  is  rich  but  deficient  in  quantity.  Many  superior  judges, 


Fig.  18. 


A Devon  Hbifeb. 


however,  prefer  them  even  for  the  dairy.  Both  cows  and  oxen 
fatten  faster  and  with  less  food  than  most  others.*  In  color 
Devon  cattle  are  generally  red. 

Our  Hew  England  cattle,  as  we  have  said,  are  generally  de- 
rived from  this  breed.  Their  horns  are  moderately  long, 


* Youatt. 


Cattle 


53 


smooth,  and  slender,  and  their  prevailing  color  deep  red;  hut 
sometimes  they  are  dark  brown,  brindle,  or  nearly  black.  The 
oxen  are  remarkable  for  their  docility,  strength,  and  quickness, 
The  cows  are  fair  milkers.  Both  oxen  and  cows  fatten  readily. 

2.  The  Hereford  Breed. — Cattle  of  the  Hereford  breed  are 
larger  than  those  of  the  North  Devon.  They  are  broad  across 
the  hind-quarters ; narrow  at  the  sirloin  ; neck  and  head  well 
Fig.  19. 


The  Hereford  Bull,  Tromp. 


proportioned;  horns  of  a medium  size  and  turned  up  at  the 
points ; color  a deep  red,  with  the  face,  throat,  and  belly  gener- 
ally white.  A spirited  contest  has  been  kept  up  for  some  time 
between  the  partisans  of  the  Herefords  and  those  of  the  Short 
Horns,  both  here  and  in  England,  each  stoutly  maintaining  the 
superiority  of  their  favorite  breed.  We  are  not  disposed  to 
take  part  in  the  controversy.  The  experience  of  persons  not 


54 


Domestic  Animals. 


engaged  in  breeding  either  sort  as  a special  business  must  finally 
settle  it ; in  the  mean  time,  candid  people  will  acknowledge  that 
both  are  excellent,  each  in  its  way. 

Youatt  says  that  the  Herefords  fatten  to  a much  greater 
weight  than  the  Devons,  and  that  a Hereford  cow  will  grow  fat 
where  a Devon  would  starve.  They  are  very  hardy,  and  will 
do  well  with  only  the  same  care  required  by  our  native  breeds. 

3.  The  Sussex  Breed . — The  Sussex  ox  holds  an  intermediate 
place  between  the  Devon  and  the  Hereford ; with  much  of  the 
activity  of  the  first  and  the  strength  of  the  second,  and  the  pro- 
pensity to  fatten,  and  the  beautiful  fine-grained  flesh  of  both. 
Experience  has  shown  that  it  combines  as  many  of  the  good 
qualities  of  both  as  can  be  combined  in  one  frame.  The  Sus- 
sex cow  does  not  answer  for  the  dairy,  her  milk,  although  of 
good  quality,  is  so  small  in  quantity  that  she  is  little  regarded 
for  making  butter  and  cheese.  The  prevailing  color  of  the 
Sussex  cattle  is  a deep  chestnut  red.* 

4.  Ayrshire  Breed. — The  Ayrshire  breed,  which  is  considered 
the  most  valuable  in  Scotland,  is  of  the  small  size  and  middle- 
horned race.  In  modern  times  it  has  been  much  improved.  Mr. 
Aiton,  in  his  Survey  of  Ayrshire,  thus  describes  this  fine  breed : 

“ The  most  approved  shapes  in  the  dairy  breed  are,  small 
head,  rather  long  and  narrow  at  the  muzzle ; eye  small,  hut 
smart  and  lively;  the  horns  small,  clear,  crooked,  and  their 
roots  at  considerable  distance  from  each  other ; neck  long  and 
slender,  tapering  toward  the  head,  with  no  loose  skin  below ; 
shoulders  thin ; fore-quarters  light ; hind-quarters  large ; back 
straight,  broad  behind;  the  joints  rather  loose  and  open  ; car- 
cass deep,  and  pelvis  capacious  and  wide  over  the  hips,  with 
round,  fleshy  buttocks;  tail  long  and  small;  legs  small  and 
short,  with  firm  joints ; udder  capacious,  broad,  and  square, 
stretching  forward,  and  neither  fleshy,  low  hung,  nor  loose; 
the  milk-veins  are  large  and  prominent ; teats  short,  all  point- 
ing outward,  and  at  considerable  distance  from  each  other; 


* Youatt. 


Cattle. 


55 


skin  thin  and  loose ; hair  soft  and  woolly ; the  head,  bones, 
horns,  and  all  parts  of  least  value,  small ; and  the  general  fig- 
ure compact  and  well  proportioned.” 

“ The  qualities  of  a cow,”  adds  Mr.  Alton  in  another  place, 
“ are  of  great  importance.  Tameness  and  docility  of  temper 
greatly  enhance  the  value  of  a milch  cow.  Some  degree  of 
hardiness,  a sound  constitution,  health,  and  a moderate  degree 
of  spirits,  are  qualities  to  he  wished  for  in  a dairy  cow,  and 
what  those  of  Ayrshire  generally  possess.  The  most  valuable 
qualities  which  a dairy  cow  can  possess  are  that  she  yields 
much  milk,  and  that  of  an  oily,  butyraceous,  and  caseous  na- 
ture ; and  that  after  she  has  yielded  very  large  quantities  of 
milk  for  several  years,  she  shall  be  as  valuable  for  beef  as  any 
ether  breed  of  cows  known ; her  fat  shall  be  much  more  mixed 
through  the  whole  flesh,  and  she  shall  fatten  faster  than  any 
other.” 

There  have  been  several  importations  of  Ayrshires  into  the 
United  States,  but  they  have,  up  to  the  present  time,  failed  to 
establish  themselves  in  general  favor. 

5.  Welsh  Cattle. — uThe  cattle  of  Wales  are  principally  of 
the  Middle  Horns,  and  stunted  in  their  growth  from  the  poverty 
of  their  pastures.  Of  these  there  are  several  varieties.  The 
Pembrokeshire  are  chiefly  black,  with  white  horns ; are  shorter 
legged  than  most  other  Welsh  cattle ; are  larger  than  those  of 
Montgomery,  and  have  round  and  deep  carcasses ; have  a lively 
look  and  good  eyes ; though  short  and  rough,  not  thick ; have 
not  large  bones,  and  possess,  perhaps,  as  much  as  possible,  the 
opposite  qualities  of  being  very  fair  milkers,  with  a propensity 
to  fatten.  The  meat  is  equal  to  the  Scotch.  They  will  thrive, 
says  Mr.  Youatt,  where  others  starve,  and  they  rapidly  outstrip 
most  others  when  they  have  plenty  of  good  past  ure.  The  Pem- 
broke cow  has  been  called  the  poor  man’s  cow.  The  Pembroke 
ox  is  a speedy  and  an  honest  worker,  and  when  taken  from  hard 
work  fattens  speedily.  Many  are  brought  to  London,  and  rarely 
iisappoint  the  butcher.” 

6.  Irish  Cattle. — Of  th^  Trish  cattle  there  are  two  breeds — 


56 


Domestic  Animals. 


the  Middle  Horns  and  the  Long  Horns.  The  Middle  Horns  are 
the  original  breed.  u They  are,”  Mr.  Youatt  says,  “ small 
light,  active,  and  wild ; the  head  commonly  small ; the  horns 
short  but  fine,  rather  upright,  and  frequently,  after  projecting 
forward,  turning  backward  ; somewhat  deficient  in  hind-quar- 
ters ; high-boned,  and  wide  over  the  hips,  yet  the  bone  not 
commonly  heavy  ; the  hair  coarse  and  long,  black  or  brindled, 
with  white  faces.  Some  are  finer  in  the  bone  and  in  the  neck, 
with  a good  eye  and  sharp  muzzle,  and  great  activity;  are 
hardy,  live  upon  very  scanty  fare,  and  fatten  with  great  rapidity 
when  removed  to  a better  soil ; they  are  good  milkers.  The 
Kerry  cows  are  excellent  in  this  respect.  These  last,  however, 
are  wild  and  remarkable  leapers.  They  live,  however,  upon 
very  little  food,  and  have  often  been  denominated,  like  those  of 
Pembroke,  the  poor  man’s  cow.” 

The  other  breed  is  of  a larger  size.  It  has  much  of  the  blood 
of  the  Lancashire  or  Craven  breed,  or  true  Long  Horn.  Their 
horns  first  turn  outward,  then  curve  and  turn  inward.  Of 
each  of  these  kinds,  an  immense  number  of  both  lean  and  fat 
stock  are  annually  exported  to  England. 

7.  The  Long  Horns. — The  Long  Horns  of  England  came 
originally  from  Craven,  in  Yorkshire,  and  derived  their  name 
from  the  length  of  their  horns. 

u The  improved  breed  of  Leicestershire  is  said  to  have  been 
formed  by  Webster,  of  Cauley,  near  Coventry,  in  Warwick- 
shire. Bakewell,  of  Dishley,  in  Leicestershire,  afterward  got 
the  lead  as  a breeder,  by  selecting  from  the  Cauley  stock ; and 
the  stocks  of  several  other  eminent  breeders  have  been  traced 
to  the  same  source. 

“The  Lancashire  breed  of  long-horned  cattle  may  be  distin- 
guished from  other  cattle  by  the  thickness  and  firm  texture  of 
their  hides,  the  length  and  closeness  of  their  hair,  the  large 
size  of  their  hoofs,  and  their  coarse,  leathery,  thick  necks. 
They  are  likewise  deeper  in  their  fore-quarters,  and  lighter  in 
their  hind-quarters  than  most  other  breeds ; narrower  in  their 
shape,  less  in  point  of  weight  than  the  Short  Horns,  though 


Cattle 


57 


better  weighers  in  proportion  to  their  size ; and  though  they 
give  considerably  less  nc  ilk,  it  is  said  to  yield  more  cream  in 
proportion  to  its  quantity.  They  are  more  varied  in  color 
than  any  other  breed;  but  whatever  ihe  color  may  be,  they 
have  in  general  a white  streak  along  their  back,  which  the 
breeders  term  finched,  and  mostly  a white  spot  on  the  inside  of 
the  hough.”* 

8.  The  Short  Horn  or  Durham  Breed . — Durham  and  York- 


The  Short-Horned  Bull,  Lord  Ertholm 


shire,  England,  have  for  ages  been  celebrated  for  a breed  of 
short-horned  cattle  possessing  extraordinary  value  as  milkers* 
“ in  which  quality,”  the  Kev.  Henry  Barry  says,  “ taken  as  a 
breed,  they  have  never  been  equaled.  The  cattle  so  distim 
guished  were  always,  as  now,  very  different  from  the  improved 
race.  They  were  generally  of  large  size,  thin  skinned,  sleek 
haired,  bad  handlers,  rather  delicate  in  constitution,  coarse  in 


* Culley. 

3* 


58 


Domestic  Animals. 


tb.©  offal,  and  strikingly  defective  in  the  substance  of  girth  in 
the  fore-quarters.  As  milkers  they  were  most  excellent,  but 
when  put  to  fatten,  as  the  foregoing  description  will  indicate, 
were  found  slow  feeders,  producing  an  inferior  quality  of  meat, 
not  marbled  or  mixed  as  to  fat  and  lean ; the  latter  sometimes 
of  a very  dark  hue.  Such,  toe,  are  the  unimproved  Short 
Horns  of  the  present  day.” 

The  improved  Short  Horns  are  even  more  celebrated  as 
feeders  than  as  milkers,  and  in  other  respects  differ  widely  from 
the  original  breed. 

“The  colors  of  the  improved  Short  Horns,”  Mr.  Youatt  says, 
“ are  red  or  white,  or  a mixture  of  both;”  “no  pure  improved 
Short  Horns”  he  adds,  “are  found  of  any  other  color  but 
those  above  named.  That  the  matured  Short  Horns  are  an 
admirable  grazier’s  breed  of  cattle  is  undoubted ; they  are  not, 
however,  to  be  disregarded  as  milkers ; but  they  are  inferior, 
from  their  fattening  qualities,  to  many  others  as  workers.” 

Mr.  Dickson,  an  eminent  cattle  breeder,  thus  eloquently  de- 
scribes the  Short  Horn : 

“ The  external  appearance  of  the  short-horned  breed  is  irre- 
sistibly attractive.  The  exquisitely  symmetrical  form  of  the 
body  in  every  position,  bedecked  with  a skin  of  the  richest 
hues  of  red,  and  the  richest  white  approaching  to  cream,  or 
both  colors,  so  arranged  or  commixed  as  to  form  a beautiful 
fleck  or  delicate  roan,  and  possessed  of  the  mellowest  touch ; 
supported  on  clean,  small  limbs,  showing,  like  those  of  the  race- 
horse and  the  greyhound,  the  union  of  strength  with  fineness ; 
and  ornamented  with  a small,  lengthy,  tapering  head,  neatly 
set  on  a broad,  firm,  deep  neck,  and  furnished  with  a small 
muzzle,  wide  nostrils,  prominent,  mildly-beaming  eyes,  thin, 
large,  biney  ears  set  near  the  crown  of  the  head  and  protected 
in  front  with  semicircularly  bent,  white,  or  brownish  colored 
short  (lienee  the  name),  smooth,  pointed  horns  ; all  these  parts 
combine  to  form  a symmetrical  harmony,  which  has  never  been 
surpassed  in  beauty  and  sweetness  by  any  other  species  of  the 
domestic%ted  ox.” 


Cattle. 


59 


The  graziers  of  Kentucky  and  other  parts  of  the  West  have 
heretofore  shown  the  greatest  preference  for  the  Short  Horns, 
but,  in  their  case,  they  are  found  to  he  subject  to  one  serious 
objection.  It  is  this  : while  they  take  on  fat  so  readily  when 
well  fed  and  become  so  heavy,  they  are  unable  to  retain  it 
during  the  long  journeys  to  the  Eastern  markets,  where  they 
generally  arrive  in  too  meager  a condition  to  command  the 
price  of  fat  cattle.  They  require  some  breed  which  will  be 
able  to  carry  their  fat  along  with  them.* 

9.  The  Alderney  or  Jersey  Breed. — This  breed  of  cattle  is 
from  Normandy  and  the  Isle  of  Jersey,  and,  although  small  and 
awkwardly  shaped,  are  much  esteemed  on  account  of  the  rich- 
ness of  their  milk,  of  which,  however,  the  quantity  is  small. 
English  noblemen  keep  Alderney  cows  in  their  parks  to  fur- 
nish cream  for  their  coffee. 

When  dried,  the  Alderney  cow  fattens  with  a rapidity  that 
would  hardly  be  thought  possible  from  her  gaunt  appearance. 
In  color,  the  Alderney  breed  is  light  red,  dun,  or  fawn  colored. 

10.  The  Galloway  Breed. — The  Galloway  breed  of  cattle  is 
well  known  for  various  valuable  qualities,  and  is  easily  distin- 
guished by  the  want  of  horns.  The  Galloways  are  broad  across 
the  back,  with  a very  slight  curve  between  the  head  and  the 
quarters,  and  broad  at  the  loins,  the  whole  body  having  a fine 
round  appearance.  The  head  is  of  moderate  size,  the  ears 
large  and  rough,  the  chest  deep,  and  the  legs  short.  The  pre- 
vailing color  is  black.  This  breed  is  highly  esteemed,  as  there 
is  no  other  kind  which  arrives  at  maturity  so  soon ; and  their 
flesh  is  of  the  finest  quality.  Their  milk  is  very  fine,  but  is 
not  obtained  in  very  large  quantities.  It  is  estimated  that 
30,000  cf  these  cattle  are  annually  sent  out  of  Galloway. 

Another  valuable  breed  of  polled  (or  hornless)  cows  is  bred 
in  Angus,  which  much  resemble,  in  appearance,  those  of  Gallo- 
way ; they  are,  however,  rather  larger  and  longer  in  the  leg, 
flatter  sided,  and  with  thinner  shoulders. 


* American  Farmer’s  Encyclopedia, 


60 


Domestic  Animals. 


In  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  a hornless  breed  of  cows  prevails, 
which  are  almost  all  descended  from  the  Galloways,  “ whose 
general  form,”  Mr.  Youatt  says,  “they  retain,  with  some  of, 
hut  not  all,  their  excellences ; they  have  been  enlarged,  but  not 
improved,  by  a better  climate  and  soil.  They  are  commonly 
of  a red  or  black  color,  with  a peculiar  golden  circle  around 
the  eye.  They  are  taller  than  the  Galloways,  hut  thinner  in 
the  chine,  flatter  in  the  ribs,  and  longer  in  the  legs;  rather 
better  milkers ; of  greater  weight  when  fattened,  though  not 
fattening  so  kindly,  and  the  meat  is  not  quite  equal  in  quality.’ 
The  Suffolk  Dun  cow,  which  is  also  of  Galloway  descent,  is 
celebrated  as  a milker,  and  there  is  little  doubt  is  not  inferior 
to  any  other  breed  in  the  quantity  of  milk  which  she  yields : 
this  is  from  six  to  eight  gallons  per  day.  The  butter  produced, 
however,  is  not  in  proportion  to  the  milk.  It  is  calculated  that 
a Suffolk  cow  produces  annually  about  1J  cwt.  of  butter. 

The  Suffolk  Duns  derive  the  last  part  of  their  name  from 
their  usual  pale  yellow  color.  Many,  however,  are  red,  or  red 
and  white.  They  are  invariably  without  horns,  and  small  in 
size,  seldom  weighing  over  700  lbs.  when  fattened.* 

11.  The  Cream-Pot  Breed. — This  is  an  American  breed,  and 
was  originated  by  Colonel  Jaques,  of  Ten  Hills  Farm,  Somer- 
ville, Mass.  It  is  a cross  between  the  Short  Horn  and  the  na- 
tive breed  of  New  England.  Mr.  Jaques  gives  the  following 
account  of  the  origin  of  this  famous  breed : 

“ Hearing  of  cows  that  produce  seventeen  pounds  of  butter 
each  per  week,  the  inquiry  arose,  why  not  produce  a breed  of 
such  cows  that  may  be  depended  on  ? This  I attempted,  and 
have  accomplished.  I have  made  from  one  of  my  Cream-Pot 
cows  nine  pounds  of  butter  in  three  days  on  grass  feed  only. 

“The  bull  Coelebs,  an  imported  thorough-bred  Durham,  and 
Flora,  a heifer  of  the  same  breed,  and  imported,  and  a native 
cow,  whose  pedigree  is  entirely  unknown,  comprise  the  ele- 
ments of  the  Cream-Pot  breed  of  cattle.  The  native  cow  was 


* American  Farmer’s  Encyclopedia. 


Cattle. 


61 


bought  in  consequence  of  her  superior  quality  as  a milker,  giv- 
ing eighteen  quarts  a day,  and  averaging  about  fifteen.  In  the 
month  of  April  the  cream  of  two  days’  milk  produced  two  and 
three-fourths  pounds  of  butter,  made  of  two  and  one-sixteenth 
quarts  of  cream,  and  required  but  two  minutes’  churning.  Thus 
much  for  the  mother  of  the  Cream-Pots. 

“I  have  bred  my  Cream-Pots  with  red  or  mahogany  colored 
hair  and  teats,  and  gold-dust  in  the  ears,  yellow  noses  and  skin, 
the  latter  silky  and  elastic  to  the  touch,  being  like  a fourteen- 
dollar  cloth.  My  Cream-Pots  are  full  in  the  body,  chops  deep 
in  the  flank,  not  quite  as  straight  in  the  belly,  nor  as  full  in  the 
twist,  nor  quite  as  thick  in  the  thigh  as  the  Durhams ; but  in 
other  respects  like  them.  They  excel  in  affording  a great 
quantity  of  rich  cream,  capable  of  being  converted  into  butter 
in  a short  time,  with  little  labor,  and  with  a very  small  propor- 
tion of  buttermilk,  the  cream  producing  more  than  eighty  per 
cent,  of  butter.  I have  changed  the  cream  to  butter  not  unfre- 
quently  in  one  minute,  and  it  has  been  done  in  forty  seconds.” 

The  late  lamented  Henry  Colman,  while  Commissioner  for 
the  Agricultural  Survey  of  Massachusetts,  wrote  as  follows : 

u Mr.  Jaques  is  entitled  to  great  credit  for  his  care  and  judi- 
cious selection  in  continuing  and  improving  his  stock.  I have 
repeatedly  seen  the  cream  from  his  cows,  and  its  yellowness 
and  consistency  are  remarkable,  and  in  company  with  several 
gentlemen  of  the  Legislature,  I saw  a portion  of  it  converted  to 
butter  with  a spoon  in  one  minute.  The  color  of  Mr.  Jaques’ 
stock  is  a deep  red,  a favorite  color  in  Hew  England;  they  are 
well  formed  and  thrifty  on  common  feed ; and  if  they  continue 
to  display  the  extraordinary  properties  by  which  they  are  now 
so  distinguished,  they  promise  to  prove  the  most  valuable  race 
of  animals  ever  known  among  us  for  dairy  purposes,  and  equal 
to  any  of  which  we  have  any  information.” 

III.— POINTS. 

Were  an  ox  of  fine  symmetry  and  high  condition  placed  be- 
fore a person  not  a judge  of  livestock,  his  opinion  of  its 


forego*  38W  j I f | ^ Rant  or  Chino 


Tbems  Denoting  the  External  Parts  op  Cattle. 


Cattle. 


63 


excellences  would  be  derived  from  a very  limited  view,  and 
consequently  from  only  a few  of  its  qualities.  He  could  not 
possibly  discover,  without  tuition,  those  properties  which  had 
chiefly  conduced  to  produce  the  high  condition  in  which  he 
saw  the  ox.  He  would  hardly  believe  that  a judge  can  ascer- 
tain merely  by  the  eye,  from  its  general  aspect,  whether  the  ox 
were  in  good  or  bad  health ; from  the  color  of  its  skin  whether 
it  were  of  a pure  or  a cross  breed ; from  the  expression  of  its 
countenance  whether  it  were  a quiet  feeder ; and  from  the  na- 
ture of  its  flesh  whether  it  had  arrived  at  maturity.  The 
discoveries  made  by  the  hand  of  the  judge  might  even  stagger 
belief.  He  understands  the  “points”  of  cattle,  and  experience 
enables  him  to  appreciate  their  individual  and  aggregate  value. 

The  “ points”  by  which  cattle  are  characterized  may  profit- 
ably be  described  in  detail : 

1.  The  nose  or  muzzle  in  the  Durhams  or  Short  Horns  should 
be  of  a rich  cream  color.  In  the  Devon,  Hereford,  and  Sussex  it 
is  preferred  when  a clear  golden  color.  A brown  or  dark  color 
indicates  a cross. 

2.  The  forehead  should  be  neither  narrow  nor  very  broad. 
The  eye  should  be  prominent,  and  the  nostril  between  the  eye 
and  the  muzzle  thin,  particularly  in  the  Devons. 

3.  The  horns  should  be  small,  smooth,  tapering,  and  sharp 
pointed,  long  or  short,  according  to  the  breed,  and  of  a white 
color  Ihroughout  in  some  breeds,  and  tipped  with  black  in 
others.  The  shape  is  less  essential  than  the  color. 

4.  The  nech  should  be  of  medium  length,  full  at  the  sides,  not 
too  deep  in  the  throat,  and  should  come  out  from  the  shoulders 
nearly  on  a level  with  the  chine. 

5.  The  top  of  the  plate  bones  should  not  be  too  wide,  but, 
rising  on  a level  with  the  chine,  should  be  well  thrown  back, 
so  that  there  may  be  no  hollowness  behind. 

6.  The  shoulder  point  should  lay  flat  with  the  ribs,  without 
any  projection. 

7.  The  breast  should  be  wide  and  open,  projecting  forward. 

8.  The  chine  should  lay  straight  and  be  well  covered  with  flesh. 


64  Domestic  Animals. 

9.  The  loin  should  he  flat  and  wide ; almost  as  wide  at  the 
fore  as  the  hinder  part. 

10.  The  hip  bones  should  he  wide  apart,  coming  upon  a level 
with  the  chine  to  the  setting  of  the  tail. 

11.  The  tip  of  the  rump  should  be  tolerably  wide,  so  that 
the  tail  may  drop  to  a level  between  the  two  points ; and  the 
tail  should  come  out  broad. 

12.  The  thigh  should  not  be  too  full  outside  nor  behind; 
but  the  inside  or  twist  should  be  full. 

13.  The  back  should  be  flat  and  rather  thin. 

14.  The  hind  leg  should  be  flat  and  thin ; the  legs  of  medium 
length,  and  the  hock  rather  turning  out. 

15.  The  feet  should  not  be  too  broad. 

16.  The  flank  should  be  full  and  heavy  when  the  animal  is  fat. 

17.  The  belly  should  not  drop  below  the  breast,  but  on  a line 
with  it. 

18.  The  shoulder  should  be  rather  flat,  not  projecting. 

19.  The  fore  leg  should  also  be  flat  and  upright,  but  not  fleshy. 

20.  The  round  should  not  project,  but  be  flat  with  the  outside 
of  the  thigh. 

21.  Hhz  jaws  should  be  rather  wide. 

22.  The  ribs  should  spring  nearly  horizontally  from  the  chine 
and  form  a circle. 

23.  The  skin  should  be  loose,  floating,  as  it  were,  on  a layer 
of  soft  fat,  and  covered  with  thick,  glossy,  soft  hair. 

24.  The  expression  of  the  eye  and  face  should  be  calm  and 
complacent. 

A writer  in  the  Farmer's  Magazine , a number  of  years  ago, 
described  what  are  properly  considered  the  good  points  of  a 
cow,  as  exhibited  in  the  Short  Horn  breed,  in  the  following 
doggerel  lines : 

She’s  long  in  her  face,  she’s  line  in  her  horn  ; 

She’ll  quickly  get  fat  without  cake  or  corn ; 

She’s  clean  in  her  jaws,  and  full  in  her  chine ; 

She’s  heavy  in  flank,  and  wide  in  her  loin ; 

She’s  broad  in  her  ribs,  and  long  in  her  rump ; 

She’s  straight  in  her  back,  with  never  a hump  ; 


Cattle. 


65 


She’s  wide  in  her  hip,  and  calm  in  her  eyes ; 

She’s  fine  in  her  shoulders,  and  thin  in  her  thigh* 

She’s  light  in  her  neck,  and  small  in  her  tail ; 

She’s  wide  in  her  breast,  and  good  at  the  pail ; 

She’s  fine  in  her  bone,  and  silky  of  skin ; 

She’s  a grazier’s  without,  and  a butcher’s  within. 

IY. — GENERAL  MANAGEMENT. 

1.  The  Cow-house . — The  cow-house  should  he  a capacious, 
well-lighted,  and  well-ventilated  building,  in  which  the  cows 
or  oxen  can  be  kept  dry,  clean,  and  moderately  warm.  It  is  a 
mistaken  idea  that  cattle  suffer  materially  by  dry  cold.  It  is 
the  wet  and  the  damp  walls,  yard,  and  driving  rains  and  fogs 
of  winter,  that  are  so  injurious  to  them.  In  this  respect  the 
Dutch  farmers  are  very  particular.  They  have  their  cows 
regularly  groomed,  and  the  walks  behind  them  sprinkled  with 
sand.* 

As  a general  thing,  our  farmers  pay  too  little  attention  to 
the  health  and  comfort  of  their  cattle,  and  especially  the  cows. 
In  many  cases  they  are  kept  in  a shamefully  dirty  condition. 
The  floor  of  their  stalls  is  allowed  to  be  disgustingly  filthy,  the 
floors  and  walls  full  of  vermin,  and  the  hides  of  the  animals 
covered  with  dust  and  dung.  It  is  not  only  at  the  expense  of 
their  comfort  that  cattle  suffer  this  neglect,  hut  to  the  farmer’s 
loss  also.  When  you  see  a cow  rubbing  herself  against  a post, 
you  may  depend  upon  it  that  the  animal  is  ill  kept  and  requires 
a good  scrubbing.  Cattle,  as  well  as  horses,  are  greatly  injured 
by  want  of  proper  attention  to  the  cleanliness  and  ventilation 
of  their  habitation.  They  should  stand  on  a slightly  raised 
platform,  which  should  he  well  littered  with  straw,  refuse  hay, 
leaves,  sawdust,  or  some  other  dry  material. 

For  tying  up  cattle,  chains,  leather  straps,  wooden  hows, 
and  stanchions  are  used.  The  stanchions  are  the  most  conve- 
nient for  the  person  having  charge  of  the  cattle,  hut,  we  think, 
less  comfortable  for  the  cattle  themselves  than  the  other  con- 


* British  Husbandry. 


66 


Domestic  Animals. 


trivances  mentioned.  A good  and  cheap  stanchion  is  con- 
structed as  follows : 

“ The  sills  of  the  stanchions  are  of  oak  joist,  six  by  two 
inches ; the  top  timbers  are  of  hemlock,  of  the  same  dimen- 
sions ; the  stanchions  of  ash,  one  and  a half  by  four  inches ; 
one  of  each  set  of  stanchions  is  pinned  between  the  sills  and 
the  corresponding  top  pieces.  From  the  bottom  of  the  sills  to 
the  top  of  the  stanchions  is  five  and  a half  feet.  The  slip  stan- 
chions are  of  the  same  size  and  material  as  the  first  named, 
but  only  pinned  at  the  bottom,  which  allows  of  their  sliding 
back  at  the  top  about  sixteen  inches,  to  admit  the  animal’s 
head ; it  is  then  pushed  to  an  upright  position  and  fastened  at 
the  top  by  a drop-button  or  clapper,  which  is  much  more 
secure  than  when  fastened  by  pins. 

“For  oxen  and  large  cows,  there  is  allowed  a space  for  each 
of  three  and  a half  feet ; for  younger  cattle  about  three  feet  to 
each.  We  have  frequently  seen  the  sill  and  top  piece  for  stan- 
chions made  of  solid  timber,  and  mortices  made  for  the  stan- 
chions. But  there  is  much  labor  required  in  morticing,  espe- 
cially the  top  timber,  so  as  to  allow  of  the  sliding  back  and  for- 
ward of  the  slip  stanchions.  The  kind  we  have  attempted  to  de- 
scribe can  be  readily  and  cheaply  made  by  almost  any  farmer.”* 

2.  Feeding. — While  confined  to  the  barn  or  cow-house  and 
barn-yard,  during  the  cold  season,  cattle  should  be  fed  with 
the  utmost  regularity;  and  a sufficient  quantity  of  nutritious 
food  supplied  to  keep  them  in  good  condition.  In  this  country, 
hay  is  the  principal  common  food  of  our  oxen  and  cows.  Roots 
are  too  seldom  employed  in  ordinary  feeding ; and  we  have  no 
doubt  but  that  the  health  and,  consequently,  the  condition  and 
value  of  our  cattle  would  be  improved  by  giving  them  more 
turnips,  beets,  carrots,  parsneps,  etc.,  during  the  winter. 

An  English  writer  says:  “ Supposing  a cow  to  calve  early  in 
April  or  May,  there  is  no  keeping  to  be  compared  with  a sweet 
pasture  for  affording  the  best  flavored  milk  and  butter ; therefore. 


* Country  Gentleman. 


Cattle. 


67 


althougn  on  a principle  of  economy  I have  always  recommend- 
ed the  house  feeding  of  a cow  (as  one  acre  of  good  clover  will 
support  three  cows  during  the  summer,  whereas  an  acre  of  pas- 
ture will  but  barely  suffice  for  one  during  the  same  period,  irre- 
spectively of  the  manure  saved  by  the  former  management),  I 
make  a decided  exception  where  there  is  no  necessity  for 
minutely  regarding  economy  at  the  expense  of  the  discomfort 
of  the  cow,  and  the  inferiority  in  flavor,  if  not  in  quantity,  of 
cream  and  butter.  Yet,  even  with  liberty,  and  the  animal’s 
enjoyment  of  picking  her  food  as  she  pleases,  there  will  be 
necessity  in  summer  for  some  artificially  grown  grasses,  to  sup- 
ply any  deficiency  that  may  occur  in  the  pasture,  and  provide 
for  the  house  feeding,  when  the  heat  of  the  sun,  the  stinging 
of  flies,  or  the  bursting  of  a storm  may  render  the  shade  and 
security  of  the  cow-shed  very  grateful  to  your  cows.  In  the 
early  and  cold  spring,  and  before  the  grass  has  sufficiently 
sprung  up,  it  is  not  any  kindness  to  the  cow,  and  it  is  a decided 
injury  to  the  ground  and  vegetation  to  turn  her  out ; at  that 
season  she  requires  the  warmth  which  her  stall  affords,  and  the 
nourishment  that  nutritious  hay  and  roots  and  bran  impart.” 

The  following  hints  from  the  pen  of  Henry  Colman  should 
be  well  heeded  by  every  farmer.  It  is  their  own  fault  if  Amer- 
ican agriculturists  do  not  profit  by  such  truthful  warnings. 

“ The  farmers  prejudice  very  greatly  their  own  interest  in 
suffering  their  milch  cows  to  come  out  in  the  spring  in  low 
condition.  During  the  time  they  are  dry,  they  think  it  enough 
to  give  them  the  coarsest  fodder,  and  that  in  limited  quantities ; 
this,  too,  at  a time  of  pregnancy,  when  they  require  the  kind- 
est treatment  and  the  most  nourishing  food.  The  calf  itself 
under  this  treatment  of  the  cow  is  small  and  feeble.  He  finds 
comparatively  insufficient  support  from  his  exhausted  dam; 
and  the  return  which  the  cow  makes  in  milk  during  the  sum- 
mer is  much  less  than  it  would  be  if  she  came  into  the  spring 
in  good  health  and  flesh.  It  requires  the  whole  summer  to 
recover  what  she  has  lost.  The  animal  constitution  can  not  be 
trifled  with  in  this  way. 


68 


Domestic  Animals. 


“It  is  so  with  all  livestock,  and  especially  with  young  ani- 
mals, at  the  period  of  their  most  rapid  growth.  They  should 
not  be  prematurely  forced ; but,  on  the  other  hand,  they  should 
not  be  stinted  or  checked. 

“ In  the  feeding  of  cattle  for  market  a great  deal  of  practical 
skill  is  required,  and  constant  observation  of  their  condition, 
otherwise  they  may  be  surfeited  and  their  appetite  destroyed, 
or  their  digestive  powers  be  overtasked,  and  the  feed  fail  of  its 
object. 

u The  articles  usually  employed  in  fattening  cattle  are  hay 
and  Indian  meal,  or  corn  and  rye  meal  mixed,  or  pease  and 
oats,  or  oats  and  corn  ground  together.  Besides  this,  many 
farmers  are  in  the  practice  of  giving  their  stall-fed  cattle  occa- 
sionally certain  quantities  of  potatoes.  An  excellent  farmer, 
of  fifty  years’  experience  in  the  fatting  of  cattle,  is  of  opinion 
that  potatoes  are  good  feed  for  fatting  cattle  in  the  fall  and 
spring,  when  the  weather  is  warm;  but  they  do  no  good  in 
cold  weather  unless  they  are  cooked.  I rely  much  upon  his 
judgment  and  experience.  The  value  of  potatoes  is  differently 
estimated  by  different  individuals ; some  considering  five  bush- 
els, others  rating  four  bushels,  as  equivalent  to  one  bushel  of 
corn.” 

An  extensive  cattle-dealer  who  has  tried  a variety  of  mix- 
tures of  feed,  such  as  oats,  brown-corn  seed,  etc.,  prefers  Indian 
meal  to  every  other  feed.  He  disapproves  of  excessive  feed- 
ing, and  thinks  it  a great  error  to  give  too  much.  He  deems 
four  quarts,  with  hay,  ordinarily  enough  ; and  ten  quarts  a day 
sufficient  for  any  animal.  He  feeds  twice  a day  with  great 
regularity.  His  present  cattle  have  never  received  over  eight 
quarts  per  day  each ; and  at  first  putting  up,  a much  less  quan- 
tity. He  deems  it  best  to  reduce  their  feed  of  provender  a few 
days  before  starting  for  market.  He  buys  his  cattle  for  feeding 
in  the  fall ; and  his  present  stock  averaged  in  the  cost  seventy- 
five  dollars  per  pair.* 


* American  Farmer’s  Encyclopedia. 


Cattle. 


69 


44  It  is  sometimes  asked,”  Mr.  Colman  says,  u whether  oxen 
Ere  injured  in  their  growth  from  being  worked.  If  their 
strength  is  prematurely  and  too  severely  taxed,  or  if  they  are 
subjected  to  severe  usage,  undoubtedly  it  must  prove  injurious ; 
but,  if  otherwise,  if  reasonably  worked  and  carefully  and  kindly 
attended,  there  is  no  doubt  that  their  health  and  growth  are 
promoted  by  it.  It  is  often  matter  of  inquiry,  whether  fatting 
cattle  should  be  kept  in  close  stalls,  or  be  suffered  to  lie  out- 
doors. The  experience  of  all  the  farmers  whom  I have  consult- 
ed, who  have  made  any  trial,  is  conclusive  in  this  case,  in  favor 
of  the  superior  thrift  of  animals  kept  constantly  in  the  barn,  or 
turned  out  only  for  watering  and  immediately  put  up  again, 
over  those  which  are  kept  in  open  sheds,  or  tied  up  for  feeding 
only,  and  at  other  times  allowed  to  lie  in  the  yard.  No  exact 
experiments  have  been  made  in  this  country  in  relation  to  this 
subject;  hut  experiments  made  abroad  lead  to  the  conclusion, 
that  cattle  thrive  best  in  a high  and  equable  temperature,  so 
warm  as  to  keep  them  constantly  in  a state  of  active  perspi- 
ration, and  that  their  thrift  is  much  hindered  by  an  exposure 
to  severe  alternations  of  heat  and  cold.  It  is  certain,  that  in 
order  to  thrift,  cattle  can  not  be  made  too  comfortable ; their 
mangers  should  be  kept  clean ; their  stalls  be  well  littered ; 
and  the  cattle  protected  from  currents  of  air  blowing  through 
crevices  or  holes  in  the  floors  or  the  sides  of  the  stables,  which 
prove  often  much  more  uncomfortable  than  an  open  exposure.” 
3.  Rearing  Calves. — Many  different  opinions  prevail  on  the 
subject  of  rearing  calves.  The  following  plan,  detailed  by  a 
Western  breeder,  we  deem  an  excellent  one: 

“ I have  my  cows  so  managed  that  they  come  in  early  in 
spring.  I wean  the  calves  after  they  have  drawn  the  milk 
two  or  three  times,  while  I milk  at  the  same  time,  all  clean, 
that  which  the  calf  may  not  be  strong  enough  to  draw.  Then 
I allow  the  calves  nearly  all  the  milk  the  cows  give,  for  four 
or  six  weeks,  which  gives  them  a good  start ; next,  I teach 
them,  when  two  or  three  weeks  old,  to  eat  some  little  of  meal 
or  threshed  oats,  and  lick  a little  salt ; at  the  same  time  I let 


70 


Domestic  Animals. 


them  have  access  to  some  good  hay ; next,  I reduce  the  quan- 
tity of  new  milk,  and  give  them  sweet  milk  minus  the  cream, 
and  by  degrees  teach  them  to  drink  coppered  milk,  feeding  ten 
or  twelve  together  in  a trough.  This  I consider  better  than 
milk  which  is  just  on  a change  from  sweet  to  sour.  As  soon  as 
practicable  after  there  is  a good  bite  of  grass,  I turn  them  into 
pasture,  even  with  the  cows,  for  they  know  not  their  dams. 
I still  feed  them  with  milk  until  about  three  months  old,  and 
all  through  the  season  if  it  can  be  had.  In  this  wise  calves  are 
hearty,  learn  easy  to  eat  anything  which  may  be  offered,  and 
will  winter  better  than  calves  which  have  drawn  the  milk  from 
cows,  and  have  received  ‘more  knocks  than  nubbins.’  They 
are  also  more  gentle,  easier  turned  to  the  yoke,  or  to  milk,  and 
are  not  afraid  of  their  masters;  but,  on  the  contrary,  learn  to 
know  the  hands  that  feed  them.  By  giving  them  a good 
chance  the  first  winter,  they  generally  make  good  thrifty 
cattle.” 

4.  Milicing . — In  reference  to  milking,  Martin  Doyle  says : 
“ Cows  in  general  are  milked  but  twice  a day,  morning  and 
evening ; but  some  of  the  Durham  cows,  particularly  when  in 
full  season  and  abundantly  fed,  will  require  to  be  milked  at 
noon  also.  In  this  case  nothing  is  really  gained  in  the  quantity 
of  milk,  and  its  quality  is  weakened,  as  twelve  hours  are  re- 
quired for  the  due  chemical  preparation  of  the  milk.  There- 
fore the  tendency  to  this  want  of  retention  in  a cow  is  not  to 
be  encouraged ; the  milk  should  only  be  drawn  off  at  supernu- 
merary times,  if  the  udder  be  excessively  distended,  and  the 
milk  flows  spontaneously.  At  each  regular  time  of  milking, 
the  contents  of  the  udder  should  be  completely  drawn  off— the 
last  drop  is  the  richest : when  there  are  two,  three,  or  more 
cows,  the  dairy-maid,  if  she  understands  her  business,  will  go 
with  a separate  vessel  and  milk  the  strippings  into  it  until 
each  udder  is  perfectly  dry.  This  small  portion  of  rich  milk 
will  give  her  more  cream  than  a larger  quantity,  and  she  re- 
serves it,  if  she  be  a prudent  person,  for  her  own  tea. 

u A cow  should  be  handled  with  exceeding  gentleness,  other 


Cattle. 


71 


wise  milking  may  become  an  unpleasant  or  even  a painful 
operation  to  her.  If  a cross-grained  man  or  woman,  with  a 
vinegar  face,  handles  the  teats  roughly,  and  bullies  a cow  of 
sensitiveness,  she  may  refuse  to  let  her  milk  flow,  though  she 
would  yield  to  the  first  touch  of  a good-tempered  person.  If 
the  udder  be  hard,  it  will  require  fomentation  with  lukewarm 
water  and  gentle  rubbing.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  teats 
become  sore;  in  this  case  an  application  of  sweet  oil,  after 
washing  the  affected  part  with  soap  and  water,  will  probably 
cure  it. 

“ A cow  may  be  milked  until  within  a month  of  calving, 
provided  the  milk  does  not  curdle  on  being  slightly  warmed,  or 
possess  a salt  taste ; either  would  be  an  indication  that  no  more 
milk  should  be  taken.” 

V.— WEIGHT  OF  LITE  CATTLE. 

Experienced  drovers  and  butchers  are  in  the  habit,  in  buy- 
ing cattle,  to  estimate  their  weight  on  foot.  Long  experience 
and  much  practice  enables  them  to  judge  with  considerable 
accuracy.  They  thus  have  the  advantage  of  the  less  experi- 
enced farmer,  who,  for  this  reason,  very  often  comes  off 
“second  best”  in  a bargain.  We  recommend  to  them  the 
following  rule,  by  means  of  which  the  weight  of  cattle  may  be 
ascertained  with  a very  close  approach  to  the  accuracy  of  the 
scales. 

Rule. — Take  a string,  put  it  around  the  breast,  stand  square 
just  behind  the  shoulder-blade,  measure  on  a rule  the  feet  and 
inches  the  animal  is  in  circumference ; this  is  called  the  girth ; 
then,  with  the  string,  measure  from  the  bone  of  the  tail  which 
plumbs  the  line  with  the  hinder  part  of  the  buttock;  direct 
the  line  along  the  back  to  the  forepart  of  the  shoulder-blade ; 
take  the  dimensions  on  the  foot  rule  as  before,  which  is  the 
length ; and  work  the  figures  in  the  following  manner : Girth 
of  the  animal,  say  6 feet  4 inches,  length  5 feet  3 inches, 
which  multiplied  together,  makes  31  square  superficial  feet, 
and  that  multiplied  by  23,  the  number  of  pounds  allowed  to 


72  Domestic  Animals. 

each  superficial  foot  of  cattle  measuring  less  than  7 and  more 
than  5 feet  in  girth,  makes  713  pounds.  When  the  animal 
measures  less  than  9 and  more  than  7 feet  in  girth,  31  is  the 
number  of  pounds  to  each  superficial  foot.  Again,  suppose  a 
pig  or  any  small  beast  should  measure  2 feet  in  girth  and  2 
along  the  back,  which  multiplied  together  makes  4 square  feet, 
that  multiplied  by  11,  the  number  of  pounds  allowed  to  each 
square  foot  of  cattle  measuring  less  than  3 feet  in  girth,  makes 
44  pounds.  Again,  suppose  a calf,  a sheep,  etc.,  should  meas- 
ure 4 feet  6 inches  in  girth,  and  3 feet  9 inches  in  length, 
which  multiplied  together  make  151  square  feet ; that  multi- 
plied by  16,  the  number  of  pounds  allowed  to  cattle  measuring 
less  than  5 feet  and  more  than  3 in  girth,  makes  265  pounds. 
The  dimensions  of  girth  and  length  of  horned  cattle,  sheep, 
calves,  and  hogs,  may  be  exactly  taken  in  this  way,  as  it  is  all 
that  is  necessary  for  any  computation,  or  any  valuation  of 
stock,  and  will  answer  exactly  to  the  four  quarters,  sinking 
offal* 

This  rule  is  so  simple  that  any  man  with  a bit  of  chalk  can 
work  it  out,  and  its  application  will  often  save  the  farmer  from 
.osses  which  mere  guess  work  is  liable  to  occasion. 


• Valley  Farmer. 


Sheep. 


73 


IV. 


SHEEP. 


Thy  flocks  the  verdant  hillside  range — Anon. 


I.-CHABACTERISTICS. 

HE  sheep  ( Oms  (tries)  is  naturally  a denizen  of 
the  hills.  Its  instincts,  even  in  its  domesti- 
cated state,  attach  it  to  the  upland  slopes ; and 
when  free  to  do  so,  it  always  seeks  the  highest 
grounds,  where  aromatic  plants  abound  and  the 
herbage  is  less  succulent  than  in  the  valleys.  The  wild  sheep, 
like  the  deer,  is  found  to  frequent  all  those  places  where  saline 
exudations  abound  and  to  lick  the  salt  earth.  In  its  wild 
state  it  generally  has  horns,  hut  these  have  nearly  disappeared 
in  most  of  the  domestic  breeds.  The  female  goes  with  young 
twenty-one  weeks,  and  usually  produces  only  one  at  a birth. 
Twins,  however,  are  not  uncommon. 

Immense  flocks  of  sheep  have  been  kept  by  man  in  all  ages, 
but  more  generally  for  their  wool  and  skins  than  for  their  flesh ; 
for  that  is  by  no  means  generally  relished.  The  Oalmucks  and 
Cossacks  still  prefer  that  of  the  horse  and  the  camel,  and  the 
Spaniard,  if  he  can  procure  other  flesh,  rarely  eats  that  of  the 
Merino.  To  a majority  of  Americans  it  is  an  object  of  dislike, 
although  it  is  gaining  in  favor  among  us.  Englishmen  consume 
more  mutton  than  any  other  people,  but  the  taste  for  it  is  of 
modern  origin  with  them. 

The  natural  age  of  the  sheep,  according  to  Youatt,  is  about 
ten  years,  up  to  which  age  they  will  breed  and  thrive  well ; 
but  there  are  instances  of  their  breeding  at  the  age  of  fifteen, 
and  living  twenty  years. 


4 


74 


Domestic  Animals. 


II.— BREEDS. 

Specimens  of  nearly  or  quite  all  the  valuable  breeds  of  sheep 
now  known  may,  it  is  believed,  be  found  in  the  United  States. 
The  principal  of  these  are  the  Native  (so  called) ; the  Spanish 
Merino ; the  Saxon  Merino ; the  New  Leicester  or  Bakewcll ; 
the  South-Down ; the  Cotswold,  the  Cheviot,  and  the  Lincoln. 
Between  these  breeds  an  almost  infinite  variety  of  crosses  have 
taken  place ; so  that,  comparatively  speaking,  few  flocks  in  the 
United  States  preserve  entire  the  distinctive  characteristics  of 
any  one  breed,  or  that  can  lay  claim  to  purity  of  blood.* 

1.  The  Native  Breed. — This  name  is  applied  to  the  common 
coarse- wooled  sheep  existing  here  previous  to  the  importation 
of  the  improved  breeds.  They  are,  however,  of  foreign,  and 
mostly  of  English  origin,  and  probably  are  the  result  of  the  ad- 
mixture of  various  breeds.  This  common  stock  of  sheep,  as  a 
distinct  family,  has  nearly  disappeared,  having  been  univer- 
sally crossed,  to  a greater  or  less  extent,  with  foreign  breeds  of 
later  introduction ; and  especially  with  the  Spanish  and  Saxon 
Merinos. 

2.  The  Spanish  Merino  Breed. — Of  this  excellent  breed  there 
have  been  many  importations  from  France  and  Spain.  There 
are  several  varieties  of  the  Merino,  differing  essentially  in 
form,  size,  and  quality  of  wool.  American  Merinos  may  be 
classed  under  three  general  heads,  and  are  thus  described : 

“ The  first  is  a large,  short-legged,  strong,  and  exceedingly 
hardy  sheep,  carrying  a heavy  fleece,  ranging  from  medium  to 
fine,  somewhat  inclined  to  throatiness,  bred  to  exhibit  external 
concrete  gum  in  some  flocks,  hut  not  commonly  so. 

“ The  second  general  class  of  American  Merinos  are  smaller 
than  the  preceding,  less  hardy  ; wool,  as  a general  thing,  finer, 
and  covered  with  a black,  pitchy  gum  on  its  extremities.  The 
'fleece  is  about  one  third  lighter  than  in  the  first  class. 

“ The  third  class,  which  have  been  bred  mostly  at  the  South, 
are  still  smaller  and  less  hardy,  and  carry  lighter  and  finer 


* Randall’s  Sheep  Husbandry. 


Sheep. 


75 


fleeces,  destitute  of  external  gum.  The  sheep  and  the  wool 
bear  a close  resemblace  to  the  Saxon,  and  if  not  actually  mixed 
with  that  blood,  they  have  been  formed  into  a similar  variety 
by  a similar  course  of  breeding. 

“ Class  first  are  larger  and  stronger  sheep  than  those  orig- 
inally imported  from  Spain,  and  in  well-selected  flocks  or  indi- 
viduals the  fleece  is  of  a decidedly  better  quality.”* 

The  Merino,  although  a native  of  a warm  climate,  becomes 
readily  inured  to  the  greatest  extremes  of  cold,  flourishing  even 
so  far  north  as  Sweden  without  degenerating  in  fleece  or  form 


The  Spanish  Merino. 


It  is  patient,  docile,  hardy,  and  long  lived.  Its  flesh,  in  spite 
of  the  prejudice  which  exists  on  the  subject,  is  short-grained, 
and  of  a good  flavor  when  killed  at  a proper  age.  It  is  longer 
in  coming  to  maturity  than  most  other  breeds,  and  does  not 
attain  its  full  growth  till  it  is  about  three  years  old.t 


* Randall. 


t Transactions  of  New  York  State  Agricultural  Society. 


76 


Domestic  Animals. 


3.  The  Saxon  Merino  Breed. — The  Saxon  Merinos  are  de- 
scended from  the  Spanish,  having  been  imported  from  Spain 
into  Saxony  in  1765.  They  have  been  considerably  modified 
by  their  German  breeding,  the  German  shepherds  having 
sacrificed  hardiness,  and  indeed  almost  everything  else,  to  fine- 
ness of  staple. 

There  are  very  few  flocks  of  pure  Saxon  sheep  in  the  United 
States,  the  importations  in  several  instances  having  been  grade 
sheep,  although  sold  as  pure  stock.  Most  flocks  have  again 
been  crossed  with  Native  or  Spanish  Merino  sheep  or  with 
both ; but  the  mixed  breed  thus  produced,  which  we  may  call 
the  American  Saxons,  have  so  long  been  bred  toward  the  Sax- 
ons, that  their  wool  equals  that  of  the  pure  breed.  They  are 
hardier  than  the  parent  German  stock,  but  still  comparatively 
tender,  requiring  regular  supplies  of  good  food,  protection  from 
storms  of  all  kinds,  and  good  shelter  in  winter.  In  docility, 
patience  under  confinement,  late  maturity,  and  longevity,  they 
resemble  the  Spanish  Merinos.* 

4.  The  New  Leicester  Breed. — This  celebrated  English  breed 
comprehends  the  most  excellent  of  the  breed  of  Mr.  Bakewell, 
their  great  improver,  and  of  Mr.  Culley’s  variety  or  improve- 
ment upon  it.  “ The  principal  recommendations  of  this 
breed,”  Oulley  says,  “ are  its  beauty  and  its  fullness  of  form ; 
in  the  same  apparent  dimensions  greater  weight  than  any  other 
sheep ; an  early  maturity  and  a propensity  to  fatten  equaled  by 
no  other  breed ; a diminution  of  the  proportion  of  offal,  and 
the  return  of  the  most  money  for  the  food  consumed.” 

“The  wool  of  the  New  Leicester,”  according  to  Randall,  “is 
loi\g,  averaging,  after  the  first  shearing,  about  six  inches,  and 
the  fleece  of  the  American  animal  weighs  about  six  pounds.  It 
is  of  a coarse  quality,  and  is  little  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
cloths.  As  a combing  wool,  however,  it  stands  first,  and  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  finest  worsteds,  etc.” 

In  England,  the  mutton  of  this  breed  is  in  great  demand,  and 


Randall. 


New  Leicester  Skebp 


78 


Domestic  Animals. 


brings  good  prices.  It  is  not  generally  considered  a profitable 
breed  in  this  country,  except,  perhaps,  on  rich  lowland  farms 
in  the  vicinity  of  considerable  markets. 

5.  The  South-Down  Breed . —The  South-Down  is  an  upland 
sheep  of  medium  size,  and  its  wool,  in  point  of  length,  belongs 
to  the  medium  class.  There  has  been  considerable  controversy 
in  reference  to  the  value  of  the  Downs  in  comparison  with  the 
other  favorite  breeds.  Mr.  Randall  does  not  rate  them  very 
high  for  wool-bearing.  But  they  are  cultivated  in  England 
more  particularly  for  their  mutton,  which  in  the  English  mar- 
kets takes  precedence  of  every  other  sort. 

u The  Down  is  turned  off  at  two  years  old,  and  its  weight  at 
that  age  in  England  is  from  eighty  to  a hundred  pounds.  Not- 
withstanding its  weight,  the  Down  has  a patience  of  occa- 
sional short  keep,  and  an  endurance  of  hard  stocking  equal  to 
any  other  sheep.  It  is  hardy,  healthy,  quiet,  and  docile.  It 
withstands  our  American  winters  well.  A sheep  possessing 
such  qualities  must  of  course  be  valuable  in  upland  districts  in 
the  vicinity  of  markets.”* 

Mr.  J.  0.  Taylor,  of  Holmdel,  N.  J.,  in  a communication 
published  in  the  Country  Gentleman , says : 

“I  contend  that  under  a high  state  of  management,  the 
South-Downs  are  a very  profitable  sheep  to  keep,  in  proof  of 
which  (for  I have  the  figures)  I will  cite  my  now  yearling  ram. 
Last  July  he  was  worth  five  dollars  to  sell  for  butchering, 
without  anything  more  than  good  pasture ; he  served  several 
ewes  from  the  middle  of  September  to  the  first  of  December, 
which  was  much  against  his  growth.  At  seven  cents  per 
week,  from  July  to  December,  say  $1  50 — cost  of  keep  from 
December  to  May  2d,  $5  41,  making,  with  his  worth  in  July,  a 
total  of  $11  91.  Had  he  been  a wether  I could  have  sold  him 
on  May  2d  for  $22  for  butchering,  leaving  a clear  gain  of  over 
$10  at  from'thirteen  to  fourteen  months  old  ! I ask  the  stock- 
raiser  and  feeder  if  this  is  not  as  profitable  as  long  wools,  or 


* Kandall. 


South-Down  Shop 


Fig.  *4 


80 


Domestic  Animals. 


any  other  stock  ? Is  it  not  more  profitable  ? But  the  Downa 
are  a superior  sheep  for  crossing  with  common  ewes  to  pro- 
duce butcher’s  lambs,  superior  to  any  long  wools . 

“ A few  years  ago  a Mr.  Beers  went  to  Canada  and  procured 
a large  lot  of  the  Canada  Leicester,  and  many  of  our  farmers 
were  induced  by  their  large  size  (with  their  wool  on)  to  buy 
them.  I expected  to  be  driven  out  of  the  market  with  my 
South-Downs  ; but  at  the  first  county  fair  (South-Downs  hav- 
ing to  show  against  long  wool)  I made  a clean  sweep  of  it,  and 
there  has  never  been  one  of  them  shown  since.  A certain 
farmer  procured  one  of  Mr.  Beers’  bucks,  and  also  a South- 
Down  ; he  divided  his  flock  of  ewes  as  nearly  as  possible  be- 
tween the  two  bucks ; the  result  was,  the  half-blood  Down 
lambs  were  all  fat,  and  sold  before  any  of  the  half-blood  Leices- 
ters  were  fit  for  market.  This  farmer  finds  the  South-Downs 
so  profitable  that  he  keeps  no  other  than  a South-Down  buck.” 

6.  The  Cotswold  Breed . — u The  Cotswold,”  Spooner  says, 
“ is  a large  breed  of  sheep,  with  a long  and  abundant  fleece,  and 
the  ewes  are  very  prolific  and  good  nurses.  They  have  been 
extensively  crossed  with  the  Leicester  sheep,  by  which  their 
size  and  fleece  have  been  somewhat  diminished,  but  their  car- 
casses considerably  improved,  and  their  maturity  rendered 
earlier.  The  wool  is  strong,  mellow,  and  of  good  color,  al- 
though rather  coarse,  from  six  to  eight  inches  in  length,  and 
from  seven  to  eight  pounds  per  fleece.  The  quality  of  the  mut- 
ton is  considered  superior  to  the  Leicester.” 

We  believe  the  Cotswolds  have  not  been  extensively  bred  in 
the  United  States,  although  there  have  been  several  importa- 
tions. An  improved  variety  of  the  Cotswolds,  under  the  name 
of  the  New  Oxfordshire  sheep,  have  lately  attracted  consider- 
able attention,  and  have  frequently  been  successful  candidates 
for  prizes  offered  for  the  best  long-wooled  sheep  at  agricultural 
shows. 

7.  The  Cheviot  Breed . — The  Cheviot  sheep  are  a peculiar 
breed,  which  are  kept  on  the  extensive  range  of  the  Cheviot 
Hills.  They  are  described  as  having  “ the  face  and  logs  gen- 


Sheep. 


81 


erally  white ; the  eye  lively  and  prominent ; the  countenance 
open  and  pleasing ; the  ear  large,  and  with  a long  space  from 
the  ear  to  the  eye  ; the  body  long ; and  hence  they  are  called 
‘long  sheep,’  in  distinction  from  the  black-faced  breed.  They 
are  full  behind  the  shoulder,  have  a long,  straight  back,  are 
round  in  the  rib,  and  well-proportioned  in  the  quarters ; the 
legs  clean  and  small-boned,  and  the  pelt  thin,  but  thickly  cov- 
ered with  fine,  short  wool ; they  possess  very  considerable  fat- 
tening qualities,  and  can  endure  much  hardship,  both  from 
starvation  and  cold.”* 

We  have  no  acquaintance  with  this  breed.  There  are  prob- 
ably but  few  of  them  in  this  country.  Mr.  Randall  speaks  very 
disparagingly  of  those  which  had  fallen  under  his  observation, 
but  which  may  have  not  been  fair  specimens  of  their  breed. 

8.  The  Lincoln  Breed. — Culley  described  the  old  breed  of 
Lincolnshire  sheep,  half  a century  ago,  as  having  “ no  horns, 
white  faces,  long,  thin,  and  weak  carcasses  ; the  ewes  weighing 
from  14  to  20  lbs.  per  quarter,  the  three-year  old  wethers  from 
20  to  30  lbs. ; thick,  rough,  white  leg,  large  bones,  thick  pelts, 
and  long  wool,  from  10  to  18  inches,  and  weighing  from  8 to 
14  lbs.  per  fleece,  and  covering  a slow-feeding,  coarse-grained 
carcass  of  mutton.”  Culley,  however,  ran  into  the  opposite 
extreme ; if  the  Lincolnshire  farmers  bred  only  for  the  wool, 
he  regarded  only  the  mutton.  A cross  between  the  two  pro- 
duced a very  profitable  and  much  improved  animal. 

III.— CHOICE  OF  BREED. 

“In  selecting  a breed  for  any  given  locality,”  Mr.  Randall 
says,  “ we  are  to  take  into  consideration,  first,  the  feed  and  cli- 
mate, or  the  surrounding  natural  circumstances  ; and  second, 
the  market  facilities  and  demands.  We  should  then  make 
choice  of  that  breed  which,  with  the  advantages  posssessed, 
and  under  all  the  circumstances,  will  yield  the  greatest  net 
value  of  marketable  product. 


* American  Farmer’s  Encyclopedia. 

4* 


82 


Domestic  Animals. 


“Bich  lowland  heibage,  in  a climate  which  allows  it  to  re- 
main green  during  a large  portion  of  the  year,  is  favorable  to 
the  production  of  large  carcasses.  If  convenient  to  markets 
where  mutton  finds  a ready  sale  at  good  prices,  then  all  the 
conditions  are  realized  which  call  for  a mutton  as  contradis- 
tinguished from  a wool-producing  sheep.  Under  such  circum- 
stances, the  choice  should  undoubtedly,  in  my  judgment,  rest 
between  the  improved  English  varieties — the  South-Down,  the 
New  Leicester,  and  the  improved  Cots  wold  or  New  Oxford- 
shire. In  deciding  between  these,  minor  and  more  specific 
circumstances  are  to  he  taken  into  account.” 

For  wool-growing  purposes  he  thinks  the  Merino  “ possesses 
a marked  and  decided  superiority  over  the  best  breeds  and 
families  of  coarse- wooled  sheep  and  its  inferiority  as  a mut- 
ton sheep,  he  thinks  is  not  so  great  as  is  generally  supposed. 

IV—  GENERAL  MANAGEMENT. 

The  following  hints  are  all  condensed  from  Kandall’s  excel- 
lent work  on  Sheep  Husbandry,  to  which  the  reader  who  may 
desire  further  details  is  referred. 

1.  Barns , Sheds , etc. — “Humanity  and  economy  both  dictate 
that  sheep  be  provided  with  shelters  to  lie  under  nights,  and 
to  which  they  can  resort  at  will . In  our  severe  winter  storms 
it  is  sometimes  necessary,  or  at  least  by  far  the  best,  to  feed 
under  shelter  for  a day  or  two.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  cir- 
cumstance, in  New  York  and  New  England,  for  snow  to  fall  to 
the  depth  of  twenty  or  thirty  inches,  within  twenty-four  or 
forty-eight  hours,  and  then  to  be  succeeded  by  a strong  and  in- 
tensely cold  west  or  northwest  wind  of  two  or  three  days’  con- 
tinuance,* which  lifts  the  snow,  blocking  up  the  roads,  and  piling 
huge  drifts  to  the  leeward  of  fences,  barns,  etc.  A flock  without 
shelter  will  huddle  closely  together,  turning  their  backs  to  the  * 
storm,  constantly  stepping  and  thus  treading  down  the  snow 
as  it  rises  about  them.  Strong,  close-coated  sheep  do  not 


* Those  terrible  wind-storms  are  of  much  longer  continuance  in  many  parti 
of  New  England. 


Sheep. 


83 


seem  to  suffer  as  much  from  the  cold,  for  a period,  as  would 
be  expected ; but  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  feed  them  enough 
or  half  enough,  under  such  circumstances,  without  an  immense 
waste  of  hay — entirely  impossible,  without  racks.  The  hay  is 
whirled  away  in  an  instant  by  the  wind ; and  even  if  racks  are 
used,  the  sheep  leaving  their  huddle  where  they  were  kept 
warm  and  even  moist  by  the  melting  of  the  snow  in  their  wool, 
soon  get  chilled  and  are  disposed  to  return  to  their  huddle. 
Imperfectly  filled  with  food,  the  supply  of  animal  heat  is  low- 
ered, and  at  the  end  of  the  second  or  third  day  the  feeble  ones 
have  sunk  down  hopelessly,  the  yearlings  and  oldish  ones  have 
received  a shock  which  nothing  but  careful  nursing  will  recover 
them  from,  and  even  the  strongest  have  suffered  an  injurious 
loss  in  condition. 

u The  simplest  and  cheapest  kind  of  shed  is  formed  by  poles 
or  rails,  the  upper  ends  resting  on  a strong  horizontal  pole  sup- 
ported by  crotched  posts  set  in  the  ground.  It  may  be  ren- 
dered rain-proof  by  pea-haulm,  straw,  or  pine  boughs. 

“In  a region  where  lumber  is  very  cheap,  planks  or  boards 
(of  sufficient  thickness  not  to  spring  downward,  and  thus  open 
the  roof),  battened  with  slabs,  may  take  the  place  of  the  poles 
and  boughs ; and  they  would  make  a tighter  and  more  durable 
roof.  If  the  lower  ends  of  the  boards  or  poles  are  raised  a 
couple  of  feet  from  the  ground,  by  placing  a log  under  them 
the  shed  will  shelter  more  sheep. 

u These  movable  sheds  may  be  connected  with  hay -barns, 
‘hay-barracks,’  stacks,  or  they  may  surround  an  inclosed  space 
with  a stack  in  the  middle.  In  the  latter  case,  however,  the 
yard  should  be  square,  instead  of  round , on  account  of  the 
divergence  in  the  lower  ends  of  the  boards  or  poles,  which  the 
round  form  would  render  necessary.” 

2.  Feeding-Racks. — “When  the  ground  is  frozen,  and  espe- 
cially when  covered  with  snow,  the  sheep  eats  hay  better  on 
the  ground  than  anywhere  else.  When  the  land  is  soft,  muddy, 
or  foul  with  manure,  they  will  scarcely  touch  hay  placed  on  it. 
It  should  then  be  fed  in  racks. 


84: 


Domestic  Animals. 


“These  are  of  various  forms.  Fig.  25  gives  the  common 
box  rack  in  the  most  general  use  in  the  North.  It  is  ten  feet 
long,  two  and  a half  wide,  the  lower  boards  a foot  wide,  the 
upper  ones  about  ten  inches,  the  two  about  nine  inches  apart, 


Fig.  25. 


Box  Back. 

and  the  corner  posts  three  by  three,  or  three  and  a half  by  two 
and  a half  inches.  The  boards  are  spiked  on  these  posts  by 
large  flat-headed  nails  wrought  for  the  purpose,  and  the  lower 
edges  of  the  upper  boards  and  the  upper  edges  of  the  lower 
ones  are  rounded  so  they  shall  not  wear  the  wool  off  from  the 
sheep’s  necks.  The  lower  boards  and  the  opening  for  the 
heads  should  be  two  or  three  inches  narrower  for  lambs.  If 
made  of  light  wood,  as  they  should  be,  a man  standing  in  the 
inside  and  middle  of  one  of  these  racks,  can  easily  carry  it 
about — an  important  desideratum.  Unless  over-fed,  sheep 
waste  very  little  hay  in  them.” 

An  improvement  upon  the  common  box  rack  has  holes  eight 
inches  wide,  nine  inches  high,  and  about  eighteen  inches  apart, 
instead  of  the  continuous  opening  represented  in  the  foregoing 
cut ; but  it  is  a little  more  expensive. 

3.  Feeding . — “ In  Germany  great  stress  is  laid  on  variety 
/n  the  winter  fodder,  and  elaborate  systems  of  feeding  are 
given.  Variations  of  dry  fodder  are  well  enough,  but  hundreds 
and  thousands  of  Northern  flocks  receive  nothing  but  ordinary 
hay,  consisting  mainly  of  timothy  (. Phleum  pratense ),  some  red 
and  white  clover  (Trifolium  pratense  et  repens ),  and  frequently 
a sprinkling  of  June  or  spear-grass  (Poa  pratensis ),  during  the 
entire  winter.  Others  receive  an  occasional  fodder  of  corn- 
stalks and  straw,  and  some  farmers  give  a daily  feed  of  grain 


Sheep. 


85 


through  the  winter.  Where  hay  is  the  principal  feed,  it  may 
be  well,  where  it  is  convenient,  to  give  corn-stalks  (or  1 blades’) 
every  fifth  or  sixth  feed,  or  even  once  a day ; or  the  daily  feed, 
not  of  hay , might  alternate  between  blades,  pea-straw,  straw 
of  the  cereal  grains,  etc.  Should  any  other  fodder  besides  hay 
he  the  principal  one,  as,  for  example,  corn-blades  or  pea- 
haulm,  each  of  the  other  fodders  might  he  alternated  in  the 
same  way.  It  is  mainly,  in  my  judgment,  a question  of  conve- 
nience with  the  flock-master,  provided  a proper  supply  of  pal- 
atable nutriment  within  a proper  compass  is  given.  Hay, 
clover,  properly  cured  pea-haulm,  and  corn-hlades  are  palatable 
to  the  sheep,  and  each  contain  the  necessary  supply  of  nutri- 
ment in  the  quantity  which  the  sheep  can  readily  take  into  its 
stomach.  Consequently,  from  either  of  these,  the  sheep  can 
derive  its  entire  subsistence.  Sheep  should  not  run  or  be  fed 
in  yards  with  any  other  stock. 

“ The  expediency  of  feeding  grain  to  store  sheep  in  the  win- 
ter depends  upon  circumstances.  Eemote  from  markets,  it  is 
generally  fed  by  the  holders  of  large  flocks.  Oats  are  com- 
monly preferred,  and  they  are  fed  at  the  rate  of  a gill  a head 
per  day.  Some  feed  half  the  same  amount  of  (yellow)  corn. 
Fewer  sheep — particularly  lambs,  yearlings,  and  crones — get 
thin  and  perish,  where  they  receive  a daily  feed  of  grain ; they 
consume  less  hay,  and  their  fleeces  are  increased  in  weight . 
On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  is  considered  good  economy. 
"Where  no  grain  is  fed,  three  daily  feeds  of  hay  are  given.  It  is 
a common  and  very  good  practice  to  feed  greenish  cut  oats  in 
the  bundle , at  noon,  and  give  but  two  feeds  of  hay — one  at 
morning  and  one  at  night.  A few  feed  greenish  cut  peas  in  the 
same  way.  In  warm,  thawing  weather,  when  sheep  get  to  the 
ground,  and  refuse  dry  hay,  a little  grain  assists  materially  in 
keeping  up  their  strength  and  condition.  This  may  furnish  a 
useful  hint  for  many  parts  of  the  South.  When  the  feed  is 
shortest  in  winter,  in  the  South,  there  are  many  localities 
where  sheep  would  get  enough  grass  to  take  off  their  appetite 
for  dry  hay,  but  not  quite  enough  to  keep  them  in  prime  con- 


86 


Domestic  Animals. 


dition.  A moderate  daily  feed  of  oats  oi  peas,  placed  in  the 
depository  racks,  would  keep  them  strong,  in  good  plight  for 
the  lambing  season,  and  increase  their  weight  of  wool. 

u Ruta-bagas,  Irish  potatoes,  etc.,  make  a good  substitute  for 
grain,  as  an  extra  feed  for  grown  sheep.  I prefer  the  ruta- 
baga to  the  potato  in  equivalents  of  nutriment.  I do  not  con- 
sider either  of  them,  or  any  other  root,  as  good  for  lambs  and 
yearlings  as  an  equivalent  in  grain.  Sheep  may  he  taught  to 
eat  nearly  all  the  cultivated  roots ; this  is  done  by  withholding 
salt  from  them,  and  then  feeding  the  chopped  root  a few  times 
rubbed  with  just  sufficient  salt  to  induce  them  to  eat  the  root 
to  obtain  it,  hut  not  enough  to  satisfy  their  appetite  for  salt 
before  they  have  acquired  a taste  for  the  roots. 

“ If  there  is  one  rule  which  may  be  considered  more  impera- 
tive than  any  other  in  sheep  husbandry,  it  is  that  the  utmost 
regularity  be  preserved  in  feeding.  First,  there  should  be  reg- 
ularity as  to  the  times  of  feeding.  However  abundantly  pro- 
vided for,  when  a flock  are  foddered  sometimes  at  one  hour 
and  sometimes  at  another — sometimes  three  times  a day  and 
sometimes  twice — some  days  grain  and  some  days  none — they 
can  not  be  made  to  thrive.  They  will  do  far  better  on  inferior 
Iceep , if  fed  with  strict  regularity.  In  a climate  where  they 
require  hay  three  times  a day,  the  best  times  for  feeding  are 
about  sunrise  in  the  morning,  at  noon,  and  an  hour  before  darJc 
at  night.  Unlike  cattle  and  horses,  sheep  do  not  eat  well  in 
the  darJc , and  therefore  they  should  have  time  to  consume  their 
food  before  night  sets  in.  Noon  is  the  common  time  for  feed- 
ing grain  or  roots,  and  is  the  best  time  if  but  two  fodderings  of 
hay  be  given.  If  the  sheep  receive  hay  three  times,  it  is  not  a 
matter  of  much  consequence  with  which  feeding  the  grain  is 
given,  only  that  the  practice  be  uniform. 

“It  is  also  highly  essential  that  there  be  regularity  preserved 
in  the  amount  fed.  The  consumption  of  hay  will,  it  is  true, 
depend  much  upon  the  weather.  The  keener  the  cold,  the 
more  sheep  will  eat.  In  the  South,  much  would  also  depend 
upon  the  amount  of  grass  obtained.  In  many  places  a light, 


Sheep. 


8T 


daily  foddering  would  suffice — in  others,  a light  foddering 
placed  in  the  depository  racks  once  in  two  days  would  answer 
the  purpose.  In  the  steady  cold  weather  of  the  North,  the 
shepherd  readily  learns  to  determine  about  how  much  hay  will 
be  consumed  before  the  next  foddering  time ; and  this  is  the 
amount  which  should,  as  near  as  may  be,  be  regularly  fed.  In 
feeding  grain  or  roots  there  is  no  difficulty  in  preserving  entire 
regularity , and  it  is  vastly  more  important  than  in  feeding  hay. 
Of  the  latter  a sheep  will  not  over-eat  and  surfeit  itself ; of  the 
former  it  will.  And  if  not  fed  grain  to  the  point  of  surfeiting, 
but  still  over-plenteously,  it  will  expect  a like  amount  at  the 
next  feeding,  and  failing  to  receive  it  will  pine  for  it  and  manifest 
uneasiness.  The  effect  of  such  irregularity  on  the  stomach  and 
system  of  any  animal  is  bad,  and  the  sheep  suffers  more  from 
it  than  any  other  animal.  I would  much  rather  that  my  flock 
receive  no  grain  at  all  than  that  they  should  receive  it  without 
regard  to  regularity  in  the  amount.  The  shepherd  should  be  re- 
quired to  measure  out  the  grain  to  sheep  in  all  instances — instead 
of  guessing  it  out — and  to  measure  it  to  each  separate  flock. 

“ In  the  North  the  grass  often  gets  very  short  by  the  10th  or 
15th  of  November,  and  it  has  lost  much  of  its  nutritiousness 
from  repeated  freezing  and  thawing.  At  this  time,  though  no 
snow  has  yet  fallen,  it  is  best  to  give  the  sheep  a light,  daily 
foddering  of  bright  hay,  or  a few  oats  in  the  bundle.  Given 
thus  for  the  ten  or  twelve  days  which  precede  the  covering  of 
the  ground  by  snow,  fodder  pays  for  itself  as  well  as  at  any 
other  time  during  the  year.” 

4.  Salt. — u Salt,  in  my  judgment,  is  indispensable  to  the  health 
of  sheep,  particularly  in  the  summer  ; and  I know  not  a flock- 
master  among  the  hundreds,  nay,  thousands  with  whom  I am 
acquainted,  who  differs  with  me  in  this  opinion.  It  is  common 
to  give  it  once  a week  while  the  sheep  are  at  grass. 

“It  is  still  better  to  give  them  free  access  to  salt  at  all  times 
by  keeping  it  in  a covered  box,  open  on  one  side.” 

5.  Water. — “Water  is  not  indispensable  in  the  summer  pas- 
tures, the  dews  and  the  succulence  of  the  feed  answering  as  a 


88 


Domestic  Animals. 


substitute.  But  my  impression  is  decided  that  free  access  to 
water  is  advantageous  to  sheep,  particularly  to  those  having 
lambs ; and  I should  consider  it  a matter  of  importance,  on  a 
sheep  farm,  to  arrange  the  pastures,  if  practicable,  so  as  to 
bring  water  into  each  of  them.” 

6.  Shade. — u No  one  who  has  observed  with  what  eagerness 
sheep  seek  shade  in  hot  weather,  and  how  they  pant  and 
apparently  suffer  when  a hot  sun  is  pouring  down  on  their 
nearly  naked  bodies,  will  doubt  that,  both  as  a matter  of  hu- 
manity and  utility,  they  should  be  provided,  during  the  hot 
summer  months,  with  a better  shelter  than  that  afforded  by  a 
common  rail  fence.  Forest  trees  are  the  most  natural  and  best 
shades,  and  it  is  as  contrary  to  utility  as  it  is  to  good  taste  to 
strip  them  entirely  from  the  sheep-walks.  A strip  of  stone 
wall  or  close  board  fence  on  the  south  and  west  sides  of  the 
pasture  will  form  a passable  substitute  for  trees ; but  in  the 
absence  of  all  these,  and  of  buildings  of  any  kind,  a shade  can 
be  cheaply  constructed  of  poles  and  brush,  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  sheds  of  the  same  materials  for  winter  shelter  already 
described.” 

7.  Lambs. — “ Lambs  are  usually  dropped  in  the  North  from 
the  first  to  the  fifteenth  of  May.  In  the  South,  they  might 
safely  come  earlier.  It  is  not  expedient  to  have  them  dropped 
when  the  weather  is  cold  and  boisterous,  as  they  require  too 
much  care ; but  the  sooner  the  better  after  the  weather  has 
become  mild,  and  the  herbage  has  started  sufficiently  to  give 
the  ewes  that  green  food  which  is  required  to  produce  a plenti- 
ful secretion  of  milk.  It  is  customary  in  the  North  to  have 
fields  of  clover,  or  the  earliest  of  grasses,  reserved  for  the  early 
spring  feed  of  the  breeding  ewes  ; and  if  these  can  be  contigu- 
ous to  their  shelters,  it  is  a great  convenience — for  the  ewes 
should  be  confined  in  the  latter,  on  cold  and  stormy  nights, 
during  the  lambing  season. 

u If  warm  and  pleasant,  and  the  nights  are  warmish,  I prefer 
to  have  the  lambing  take  place  in  the  pastures.  I think  sheep 
are  more  disposed  to  own  and  take  kindly  to  their  lambs  thus, 


Sheep. 


89 


than  in  the  confusion  of  a small  inclosure.  Unless  particularly 
docile,  sheep  in  a small  inclosure  crowd  from  one  side  to  another 
when  any  one  enters,  running  over  young  lambs,  and  pressing 
them  severely,  etc.  Ewes  get  separated  from  their  lambs,  and 
then  run  violently  round  from  one  to  another,  jostling  and 
knocking  them  about.  Young  and  timid  ewes  get  separated 
from  their  lambs,  and  frequently  will  neglect  them  for  an  hour 
or  more  before  they  will  again  approach  them.  If  the  weather 
is  severely  cold,  the  lamb,  if  it  has  never  sucked,  stands  a 
chance  to  perish.  Lambs,  too,  when  just  dropped,  in  a dirty 
inclosure,  in  their  first  efforts  to  rise,  tumble  about,  and  the 
membrane  which  adheres  to  them  becomes  smeared  with  dirt 
and  dung — and  the  ewe  refuses  to  lick  them  dry,  which  much 
increases  the  hazard  of  freezing. 

11  Lambs  should  be  weaned  at  four  months  old.  It  is  better 
for  them  and  much  better  for  their  dams.  The  lambs  when 
taken  away  should  be  put  for  several  days  in  a field  distant 
from  the  ewes,  that  they  may  not  hear  each  other’s  bleatings. 
The  lambs  when  in  hearing  of  their  dams  continue  restless 
much  longer,  and  they  make  constant  and  frequently  successful 
efforts  to  Grawl  through  the  fences  which  separate  them.  One 
or  two  tame  old  ewes  are  turned  into  the  field  with  them,  to 
teach  them  to  come  at  the  call,  find  salt  when  thrown  to  them, 
and  eat  grain,  etc.,  out  of  troughs  when  winter  approaches. 

“The  lambs  when  weaned  should  be  put  on  the  freshest  and 
tenderest  feed.  I have  usually  reserved  for  mine  the  grass  and 
clover  sown,  the  preceding  spring,  on  the  grain  fields  which 
were  seeded  down. 

“ The  dams,  on  the  contrary,  should  be  put  for  a fortnight  on 
short,  dry  feed,  to  stop  the  flow  of  milk.  They  should  be  looked 
to  once  or  twice,  and  should  the  bags  of  any  be  found  much 
distended,  the  milk  should  be  drawn  and  the  bag  washed  for  a 
little  time  in  cold  water.  But  on  short  feed  they  rarely  give 
much  trouble  in  this  particular.  When  properly  dried  off  they 
should  be  put  on  good  feed  to  recruit,  and  get  in  condition  for 
winter.” 


90 


Domestic  Animals. 


8.  Emasculation  and  Docking. — u These  should  usually  pre- 
cede washing,  as  at  that  period  the  oldest  lambs  will  be  about 
a month  old,  and  it  is  safer  to  perform  the  operations  when 
they  are  a couple  of  weeks  younger.  Dry,  pleasant  weather 
should  be  selected.  Castration  is  a simple  and  safe  process. 
Let  a man  hold  the  lamb  with  its  hack  pressed  firmly  against 
his  breast  and  stomach,  and  all  four  legs  gathered  in  front  in 
his  nands.  Cut  off  the  bottom  of  the  pouch,  free  the  testicle 
from  the  inclosing  membrane,  and  then  draw  it  steadily  out,  or 
clip  the  cord  with  a knife,  if  it  does  not  snap  off  at  a proper 
distance  from  the  testicle.  Some  shepherds  draw  both  testicles 
at  once  with  their  teeth.  It  is  common  to  drop  a little  salt  into 
the  pouch.  Where  the  weather  is  very  warm,  some  touch  the 
end  of  the  pouch  (and  that  of  the  tail,  after  that  is  cut  off) 
with  an  ointment,  consisting  of  tar,  lard,  and  turpentine.  In 
ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a hundred,  however,  they  will  do  just 
as  well,  here,  without  any  application. 

u The  tail  should  he  cut  off,  say  one  and  a half  inches  from  the 
body,  with  a chisel  on  the  head  of  a block,  the  skin  being  slid 
up  toward  the  body  with  a finger  and  thumb,  so  that  it  will 
afterward  cover  the  end  of  the  stump.  Severed  with  a knife, 
the  end  of  the  tail  being  grasped  with  one  of  the  hands  in  the 
ordinary  way,  a naked  stump  is  left  which  takes  some  time  to 
heal. 

u It  may  occur  to  some  unused  to  keeping  sheep,  that  it  is 
unnecessary  to  cut  off  the  tail.  If  left  on,  it  is  apt  to  collect 
filth,  and  if  the  sheep  purges,  it  becomes  an  intolerable  nui- 
sance. 

9.  Washing.— “ This  is  usually  done  here  about  the  first  of 
June.  The  climate  of  the  Southern  States  would  admit  of  its 
being  done  earlier.  The  rule  should  be  to  wait  until  the  water 
has  acquired  sufficient  warmth  for  bathing,  and  until  cold  rains 
and  storms,  and  cold  nights  are  no  longer  to  be  expected. 

10.  Shearing. — “ It  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  give  intel- 
ligible practical  instructions  which  would  guide  an  entire  nov- 
ice in  skillfully  shearing  a sheep.  Practice  is  requisite.  The 


Sheep.  91 

following  directions  from  the  American  Shepherd*  are  correct^ 
and  are  as  plain,  perhaps,  as  they  can  be  made : 

“ 4 The  shearer  may  place  the  sheep  on  that  part  of  the  floor 
assigned  to  him,  resting  on  its  rump,  and  himself  in  a posture 
with  one  (his  right)  knee  on  a cushion,  and  the  hack  of  the  animal 
resting  against  his  left  thigh.  He  grasps  the  shears  about  half- 
way from  the  point  to  the  bow,  resting  his  thumb  along  the 
blade,  which  affords  him  better  command  of  the  points.  He 
may  then  commence  cutting  the  wool  at  the  brisket,  and  pro- 
ceeding downward,  all  upon  the  sides  of  the  belly  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  ribs,  the  external  sides  of  both  thighs  to  the 
edges  of  the  flanks ; then  back  to  the  brisket,  and  thence  up- 
ward, shearing  the  wool  from  the  breast,  front,  and  both  sides 
of  the  neck — but  not  yet  the  back  of  it — and  also  the  poll  or 
fore-part,  and  top  of  the  head.  How  the  “jacket  is  opened”  of 
the  sheep,  and  its  position  and  that  of  the  shearer  is  changed,  by 
being  turned  flat  upon  its  side,  one  knee  of  the  shearer  resting 
on  the  cushion,  and  the  other  gently  pressing  the  fore-quarter 
of  the  animal,  to  prevent  any  struggling.  He  then  resumes 
cutting  upon  the  flank  and  rump,  and  thence  onward  to  the 
head.  Thus  one  side  is  complete.  The  sheep  is  then  turned 
on  to  the  other  side,  in  doing  which  great  care  is  requisite  to 
prevent  the  fleece  from  being  torn,  and  the  shearer  acts  as  upon 
the  other,  which  finishes.  He  must  then  take  his  sheep  near 
to  the  door  through  which  it  is  to  pass  out,  and  neatly  trim 
the  legs,  and  leave  not  a solitary  lock  anywhere  as  a harbor 
for  ticks.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  for  him  to  remove  from 
his  stand  to  trim,  otherwise  the  useless  stuff  from  the  legs  be- 
comes intermingled  with  the  fleece  wool.  In  the  use  of  the 
shears,  let  the  blades  be  laid  as  flat  to  the  skin  as  possible,  not 
lower  the  points  too  much,  nor  cut  more  than  from  one  to  two 
inches  at  a clip,  frequently  not  so  much,  depending  on  the  part 
and  compactness  of  the  wool.’ 

u Cold  storms  sometimes  destroy  sheep,  in  this  latitude,  soon 


* Pages  170,  180. 


92 


Domestic  Animals. 


after  shearing — particularly  the  delicate  Saxons.  I have  known 
forty  or  fifty  perish  out  of  a single  flock,  from  one  night’s 
exposure.  The  remedy,  or  rather  the  preventive,  is  to  house 
them,  or  in  default  of  the  necessary  fixtures  to  effect  this,  to 
drive  them  into  dense  forests.  I presume,  however,  this  would 
be  a calamity  of  rare  occurrence  in  the  1 sunny  South.’ 

V.— VALUE  OF  SHEEP  TO  THE  FARMER. 

The  following  suggestive  remarks  are  from  the  Country 
Gentleman , and  are  worthy  of  every  reader’s  attention : 

“ Sheep  are  profitable  to  the  farmer,  not  only  from  the  pro- 
duct of  wool  and  mutton,  but  from  the  tendency  which  their 
keeping  has  to  improve  and  enrich  his  land  for  all  agricultural 
purposes.  They  do  this : 

“1.  By  the  consumption  of  food  refused  by  other  animals  in 
summer;  turning  waste  vegetation  to  use,  and  giving  rough 
and  bushy  pastures  a smoother  appearance,  and  in  time  erad- 
icating wild  plants  so  that  good  grasses  and  white  clover  may 
take  their  place.  In  this  respect  sheep  are  of  especial  value  to 
pastures  on  soils  too  steep  or  stony  for  the  plow.  In  winter, 
the  coarser  parts  of  the  hay,  refused  by  horses  and  cows,  are 
readily  eaten  by  sheep,  while  other  stock  will  generally  eat 
most  of  that  left  by  these  animals. 

“For  these  reasons,  among  others,  no  grazing  farm  should  be 
without  at  least  a small  flock  of  sheep,  for  it  has  been  found 
that  as  large  a number  of  cattle  and  horses  can  he  kept  with 
as  without  them,  and  without  any  injury  to  the  farm  for  other 
purposes.  A small  flock,  we  said — perhaps  half  a dozen  to 
each  horse  and  cow  would  be  the  proper  proportion.  A va- 


* Sheep  Husbandry  ; with  an  Account  of  the  Different  Breeds  and  General 
Directions  in  regard  to  Summer  and  Winter  Management,  Breeding,  and 
Treatment  of  Diseases.  With  Portraits  and  other  Engravings.  By  Henry  S. 
Randall.  New  York:  A.  O.  Moore.  This  work  is  bound  with  “ Youatt  on 
the  Sheep,”  under  the  general  title  of  “ The  Shepherd’s  Own  Book,”  and  the 
volume  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  one  who  would  make  sheep-breeding 
his  principal  business. 


Sheep. 


93 


riety  of  circumstances  would  influence  this  point ; such  as  the 
character  of  the  pasturage,  and  the  proportion  of  the  same 
fitted  and  desirable  for  tillage. 

“ 2.  Sheep  enrich  land  by  the  manufacture  of  considerable 
quantities  of  excellent  manure.  A farmer  of  long  experience 
in  sheep  husbandry,  thought  there  was  no  manure  so  fertilizing 
as  that  of  sheep,  and  (of  which  there  is  no  doubt)  that  none 
dropped  by  the  animal  upon  the  land  suffered  so  little  by  waste 
from  exposure.  A German  agricultural  writer  has  calculated 
that  the  droppings  from  one  thousand  sheep  during  a single 
night  would  manure  an  acre  sufficiently  for  any  crop.  By  using 
a portable  fence,  and  moving  the  same  from  time  to  time,  a 
farmer  might  manure  a distant  field  with  sheep  at  less  expense 
than  that  of  carting  and  spreading  barn  manure. 

“ The  value  of  sheep  to  the  farmer  is  much  enhanced  by  duo 
attention  to  their  wants.  Large  flocks  kept  together  are  sel- 
dom profitable,  while  small  assorted  flocks  always  pay  well,  if 
fed  as  they  should  be.  To  get  good  fleeces  of  wool,  and  large, 
healthy  lambs  from  poor  neglected  sheep,  is  impossible.  It  is 
also  true  that  the  expense  of  keeping  is  often  least  with  the 
flocks  that  are  always  kept  in  good  condition.  The  eye  and 
thought  of  the  owner  are  far  more  necessary  than  large  and 
irregular  supplies  of  fodder.  Division  of  the  flock  and  shelter, 
with  straw  and  a little  grain,  will  bring  them  through  to  spring 
pastures  in  far  better  order  than  if  kept  together,  with  double 
rations  of  hay,  one  half  of  which  is  wasted  by  the  stronger 
animals,  while  the  weak  of  the  flock  pick  up  but  a scanty  liv- 
ing, and  oftentimes  fail  to  get  that  through  the  whole  winter. 

“¥e  commend  this  subject  to  the  consideration  of  our  corre- 
spondents ; it  is  one  which  needs  greater  attention  on  the  part 
of  the  farming  public.” 

VI.— AFFECTION  OF  THE  EWE. 

The  Ettrick  Shepherd  tells  the  following  story  of  the  con- 
tinued affection  of  the  ewe  for  her  dead  lamb : 

“ One  of  the  two  years  while  I remained  on  the  farm  at  Wil- 


94 


Domestic  Animals. 


lenslee  a severe  blast  of  snow  came  on  by  night,  about  the  lat- 
ter end  of  April,  which  destroyed  several  scores  of  our  lambs, 
and  as  we  had  not  enow  of  twins  and  odd  lambs  for  the  mothers 
that  had  lost  theirs,  of  course  we  selected  the  best  ewes  and 
put  lambs  to  them.  As  we  were  making  the  distribution,  I 
requested  of  my  master  to  spare  me  a lamb  for  a ewe  which  he 
knew,  and  which  was  standing  over  a dead  lamb  in  the  end  ot 
the  hope,  about  four  miles  from  the  house.  He  would  not  let 
me  do  it,  but  bid  me  let  her  stand  over  her  lamb  for  a day  or 
two,  and  perhaps  a twin  would  be  forthcoming.  I did  so,  and 
faithfully  she  did  stand  to  her  charge.  I visited  her  every  morn- 
ing and  evening  for  the  first  eight  days,  and  never  found  her 
above  two  or  three  yards  from  the  lamb  ; and  often  as  I went 
my  rounds,  she  eyed  me  long  ere  I came  near  her,  and  kept 
stamping  with  her  foot,  and  whistling  through  her  nose,  to 
frighten  away  the  dog.  He  got  a regular  chase  twice  a day  as  I 
passed  by  ; but  however  excited  and  fierce  a ewe  may  be,  she 
never  offers  any  resistance  to  mankind,  being  perfectly  and 
meekly  passive  to  them. 

“ The  weather  grew  fine  and  warm,  and  the  dead  lamb  soon 
decayed ; but  still  this  affectionate  and  desolate  creature  kept 
hanging  over  the  poor  remains  with  an  attachment  that  seemed 
to  be  nourished  by  hopelessness.  It  often  drew  tears  from  my 
eyes  to  see  her  hanging  with  such  fondness  over  a few  bones, 
mixed  with  a small  portion  of  wool.  For  the  first  fortnight 
she  never  quitted  the  spot ; and  for  another  week  she  visited 
it  every  morning  and  evening,  uttering  a few  kindly  and  heart- 
piercing bleats ; till  at  length  every  remnant  of  her  offspring 
vanished,  mixing  with  the  soil,  or  wafted  away  by  the  winds.” 


Swine. 


95 


Y. 

SWINE. 


Where  oft  the  swine,  from  ambush  warm  and  dry, 

Bolt  out  and  scamper  headlong  to  their  sty.— Bloomfltld. 

I.— NATURAL  HISTORY. 

HE  hog  (, Suidce  sus  of  Linnaous),  according  to 
Cuvier,  belongs  to  u the  class  Mammalia , order 
Pachydermata , genus  Suidce  or  susP 

Professor  Low  remarks,  that  “ the  hog  is  sub- 
ject to  remarkable  changes  of  form  and  charac- 
ters, according  to  the  situation  in  which  he  is  placed.  When 
these  characters  assume  a certain  degree  of  permanence,  a 
breed  or  variety  is  formed ; and  there  is  no  one  of  the  domes- 
tic animals  which  more  easily  receives  the  characters  we  de- 
sire to  impress  upon  it.  This  arises  from  its  rapid  powers  of 
increase,  and  the  constancy  with  which  the  characters  of  the 
parents  are  reproduced  in  the  progeny. 

There  is  no  kind  of  livestock  that  can  be  so  easily  im- 
proved by  the  breeder  and  so  quickly  rendered  suited  to  the 
purposes  required;  and  the  same  characters  of  external  form 
indicate  in  the  hog  a disposition  to  arrive  at  early  maturity  of 
muscle  and  fat  as  in  the  ox  and  the  sheep.  The  body  is  long  in 
proportion  to  the  limbs,  or,  in  other  words,  the  limbs  are  short 
in  proportion  to  the  body ; the  extremities  are  free  from  coarse- 
ness; the  chest  is  broad  and  the  trunk  round.  Possessing 
these  characteristics,  the  hog  never  fails  to  arrive  at  early  ma- 
turity, and  with  a smaller  consumption  of  food  than  when  he 
possesses  a different  conformation.” 

The  wild  boar,  which  was  undoubtedly  the  progenitor  of  all 
the  European  varieties,  and  also  of  the  Chinese  breed,  was  for- 


96 


Domestic  Animals. 


merly  a native  of  the  British  Islands,  and  very  common  in  the 
forests  until  the  time  of  the  civil  wars  in  England. 

The  wild  hog  is  now  spread  over  the  temperate  and  warmer 
parts  of  the  old  continent  and  its  adjacent  islands.  His  color 
varies  with  age  and  climate,  but  is  generally  a dusky  brown 
with  black  spots  and  streaks.  His  skin  is  covered  with  coarse 
nairs  or  bristles,  intersected  with  soft  wool,  and  with  coarser 
and  longer  bristles  upon  the  neck  and  spine,  which  he  erects 
when  in  anger.  He  is  a very  hold  and  powerful  creature,  and 
becomes  more  fierce  and  indocile  with  age.  From  the  form  of 
his  teeth  he  is  chiefly  herbivorous  in  his  habits,  and  delights  in 
roots,  which  his  acute  sense  of  smell  and  touch  enables  him  to 
discover  beneath  the  surface.  He  also  feeds  upon  animal  sub- 
stances, such  as  worms  and  larvm  which  he  grubs  up  from  the 
ground,  the  eggs  of  birds,  small  reptiles,  the  young  of  animals, 
and  occasionally  carrion ; he  even  attacks  venomous  snakes  with 
impunity. 

The  female  produces  a litter  but  once  a year,  and  in  much 
smaller  numbers  than  when  domesticated.  She  usually  carries 
her  young  for  four  months  or  sixteen  weeks. 

In  a wild  state  the  hog  has  been  known  to  live  more  than 
thirty  years ; but  when  domesticated  he  is  usually  slaughtered 
for  bacon  before  he  is  two  years  old,  and  boars  killed  for  brawn 
seldom  reach  to  the  age  of  five.  When  the  wild  hog  is  tamed, 
it  undergoes  the  following  among  other  changes  in  its  conforma- 
tion. The  ears  become  less  movable,  not  being  required  to 
collect  distant  sounds.  The  formidable  tusks  of  the  male 
diminish,  not  being  necessary  for  self-defense.  The  muscles  of 
the  neck  become  less  developed,  from  not  being  so  much  exer- 
cised as  in  the  natural  state.  The  head  becomes  more  inclined, 
the  back  and  loins  are  lengthened,  the  body  rendered  more 
capacious,  the  limbs  shorter  and  less  muscular ; and  anatomy 
proves  that  the  stomach  and  intestinal  canals  have  also  become 
proportionately  extended  along  with  the  form  of  the  body. 
The  habits  and  instincts  of  the  animal  change ; it  becomes  diur- 
nal in  its  habits,  not  choosing  the  night  for  its  search  of  food ; 


Swine.  97 

is  more  insatiate  in  its  appetite,  and  the  tendency  to  obesity 
increases. 

The  male  forsaking  its  solitary  habits,  becomes  gregarious, 
and  the  female  produces  her  young  more  frequently,  and  in 
larger  numbers.  With  its  diminished  strength  and  power  of 
active  motion,  the  animal  also  loses  its  desire  for  liberty.  These 
changes  of  form,  appetites,  and  habits,  being  communicated 
to  its  progeny,  a new  race  of  animals  is  produced,  better 
suited  to  their  altered  condition.  The  wild  hog,  after  it  has 
been  domesticated,  does  not  appear  to  revert  to  its  former  state 
and  habits ; at  least  the  swine  of  South  America,  carried  thith- 
er by  the  Spaniards,  which  have  escaped  to  the  woods,  retain 
their  gregarious  habits,  and  have  not  become  wild  boars.* 

II.— OPINIONS  RESPECTING  THE  HOG. 

From  the  various  allusions  to  the  hog  in  the  writings  of  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  it  is  plain  that  its  flesh  was  held 
in  high  esteem  among  those  nations.  The  Romans  even  made 
the  breeding,  rearing,  and  fattening  pigs  a study,  which  they 
designated  as  Porculatio . 

Yarro  states  that  the  Gauls  produced  the  largest  and  finest 
swine’s  flesh  that  was  brought  into  Italy ; and  according  to 
Strabo,  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  they  supplied  Rome  and 
nearly  all  Italy  with  gammons,  hog-puddings,  and  sausages. 
This  nation  and  the  Spaniards  appear  to  have  kept  immense 

droves  of  swine,  but  scarcely  any  other  kind  of  livestock 

In  fact,  the  hog  was  held  in  very  high  esteem  by  all  the  early 
nations  of  Europe ; and  some  of  the  ancients  have  even  paid  it 
divine  honors.! 

On  the  other  hand,  swine’s  flesh  has  been  held  in  utter  abhor- 
rence by  the  Jews  since  the  time  of  Moses,  in  whose  laws  they 
were  forbidden  to  make  use  of  it  as  food.  The  Egyptians  also 
and  the  followers  of  Mohammed  have  religiously  abstained  from 
it.  Paxton,  in  his  “ Illustrations  of  Scripture,”  says  : 


* American  Farmer’s  Encyclopedia. 

5 


t Youatt. 


98 


Domestic  Animals. 


“The  hog  was  justly  classed  by  the  Jews  among  the  vilest 
animals  in  the  scale  of  animated  nature ; and  it  can  not  be 
doubted  that  his  keeper  shared  in  the  contempt  and  abhorrence 
which  he  had  excited.  The  prodigal  son  in  the  parable  bad 
spent  his  all  in  riotous  living,  and  was  ready  to  perish 
through  want,  before  he  submitted  to  the  humiliating  employ- 
ment of  feeding  swine.” 

“Swine,”  Heroditus  says,  “are  accounted  such  impure  beasts 
by  the  Egyptians,  that  if  a man  touches  one  even  by  accident, 
he  presently  hastens  to  the  river  and,  in  all  his  clothes,  plunges 
into  the  water.  For  this  reason  swine-herds  alone  of  the 
Egyptians  are  not  anowed  to  enter  any  of  their  temples ; neither 
will  any  one  give  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  one  of  that  pro- 
fession, nor  take  a wife  born  of  such  parents,  so  that  they  are 
necessitated  to  intermarry  among  themselves.” 

The  Brahminical  tribes  of  India  share  with  the  Jews,  Moham- 
medans, and  Egyptians  this  aversion  to  the  hog.  The  modern 
Copts,  descendants  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  rear  no  swine,  and 
the  Jews  of  the  present  day  abstain  from  their  flesh  as  of  old. 

It  was  Cuvier’s  opinion  that  “in  hot  climates  the  flesh  of 
swine  is  not  good;”  and  Mr.  Sonnini  remarks  that  “ in  Egypt, 
Syria,  and  even  the  southern  parts  of  Greece,  this  meat,  though 
very  white  and  delicate,  is  so  far  from  being  firm,  and  is  so 
overcharged  with  fat,  that  it  disagrees  with  the  strongest 
stomachs.  It  is  therefore  considered  unwholesome,  and  this 
will  account  for  its  proscription  by  the  legislators  and  priests 
of  the  East.  Such  abstinence  was  doubtless  indispensable  to 
health  under  the  burning  suns  of  Arabia  and  Egypt.”  How 
is  it  under  the  burning  suns  of  Carolina  and  Georgia  ? 

III.— BREEDS. 

The  various  breeds  which  have  been  reared  by  crosses  be- 
tween those  procured  from  different  countries  aie  so  numerous* 
that  to  give  anything  like  a detailed  description  of  them  would 
fill  a large  volume.  We  shall  refer  to  only  a few  of  the  more 
Important  of  them. 


Swine. 


99 


1.  The  Land  Pilce. — The  old  common  breed  of  the  country, 
sometimes  called  “land-pikes,”  may  be  described  as  “large, 
~ough,  long-nosed,  big-boned,  thin-backed,  slab-sided,  long-leg- 
Fig.  26. 


The  Land  Pike  Hog. 


ged,  ravenous,  ugly  animals.”  Speaking  of  this  race,  A.  B.  Allen 
says:  “No  reasonable  fence  can  stop  them,  but,  ever  restive 
and  uneasy,  they  rove  about  seeking  for  plunder ; swilling 
grunting,  rooting,  pawing ; always  in  mischief  and  always  de- 
stroying. The  more  a man  possesses  of  such  stock  the  worse 
he  is  off.”  But  this  breed  is  rapidly  disappearing.  Crosses 
between  the  land-pike  and  the  Chinese  or  the  Berkshire  pro- 
ducing a fine  animal,  the  original  breed  is  being  very  generally 
improved. 

2.  The  Chinese  Breed. — This  breed  was  introduced  into  this 
country  from  China  some  forty  years  ago.  The  Chinese  hog  is 
small  in  limb,  round  in  body,  short  in  head,  and  very  broad  in 
cheek.  When  fattened,  it  looks  quite  out  of  proportion,  the 
head  appearing  to  be  buried  in  the  neck,  so  that  only  the  tip  of 
the  nose  is  visible.  It  has  an  exceedingly  thin  skin  and  fine 
bristles. 

The  pure-blooded  Chinese  hog  has  been  bred  to  only  a limited 
extent  in  the  United  States,  on  account  of  the  smallness  of  its 
size  (it  seldom  attaining  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds),  and  its  lack  of  hardiness  in  a cold  climate.  In  thisr 
last  respect,  however,  it  is  well  adapted  to  the  South.  Crossed 


100 


Domestic  Animals. 


with  the  native  hog  it  forms  an  excellent  breed,  which  we  may 
call  the  improved  China  breed.  Hogs  of  this  mixed  breed  are 
various  in  color — black,  white,  spotted,  and  gray  and  white ; 
they  are  longer  in  body  than  the  pure  Chinese  breed ; small  in 
the  head  and  legs ; broad  in  the  hack ; round  in  the  body ; the 
hams  well  let  down ; skin  thin ; flesh  delicate  and  finely  flavor- 
ed. They  are  easy  keepers;  small  consumers;  quiet  in  dis- 
position ; not  disposed  to  roam ; and  when  in  condition  may  be 
kept  so  upon  grass  only. 

3.  The  Berkshire  Breed. — This  was  one  of  the  earliest  im- 
proved of  the  English  breeds,  and  is  deemed  by  many  the  most 
excellent  of  all  the  varieties  at  present  known.  It  is  certainly 
the  most  widely  distributed  and  most  generally  approved.  It 
is  a breed  which  is  distinguished  by  being,  in  general,  of  a 
tawny  white,  or  rufous-brown  color,  spotted  with  black  or 
brown ; head  well  placed,  large  ears,  generally  standing  forward, 
though  sometimes  hanging  over  the  eyes;  body  thick,  close, 
and  well  made;  legs  short,  small  in  the  bone;  coat  rough  and 
curly,  wearing  the  appearance  of  indicating  both  skin  and  flesh 
of  a coarse  quality.  Such,  however,  is  not  the  case,  for  they 


Fig.  27. 


The  Berkshire  Hog. 


have  a disposition  to  fatten  quickly  : nothing  can  be  finer  than 
the  bacon,  and  the  animals  attain  to  a very  great  size. 


Swine 


101 


The  Berksliires,  from  which  most  of  the  present  American 
stock  has  sprung,  were  imported  in  1822.  The  breed  has  spread 
very  rapidly  over  the  country. 

_ Fig.  28. 


The  Suffolk  Hog. 


4.  The  Suffolk  Breed. — The  improved  Suffolk  breed  originated 
in  a cross  between  the  original  Suffolk  hog  and  the  Chinese. 
It  is  a very  valuable  breed,  but  much  smaller  in  size  than  the 
Berkshire.  The  Suffolks  are  thick  through  the  shoulders,  very 
handsomely  proportioned  in  body,  and  possessing  beautiful 
hams.  Their  color  is  either  white  or  light  flesh  color,  when 
of  the  pure  breed,  and  they  are  indeed  an  ornament  to  the 
farm. 

It  is  said  that  they  are  less  inclined  to  cutaneous  diseases 
than  numerous  others,  and  do  not,  under  any  circumstances, 
produce  that  strong,  musky  flavored  pork  we  sometimes  find  in 
market.  They  are  not  a gross,  unwieldy  animal,  generally 
ranging  from  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  pounds 


102 


Domestic  Animals. 


weight  at  twelve  months  of  age,  which  latter  weight  they  sel- 
dom exceed.  They  are  clean  feeders,  and  require  much  less 
than  any  other  breed  known. 

For  large  hogs,  a cross  between  these  and  the  Berkshire  is 
very  desirable,  and  is  preferred  by  Western  breeders  ; hut  for  a 
small  breeder,  or  for  family  use,  the  pure  Suffolks  are  prefer- 
able.* 

5.  The  Essex  Breed . — The  Essex  hogs  are  mostly  black  and 
white,  the  head  and  hinder  parts  being  black  and  the  back  and 
belly  white.  The  most  esteemed  Essex  breeds,  Youatt  says, 
are  entirely  black,  and  are  distinguished  by  having  small  teat- 
like appendages  of  the  skin  depending  from  the  under  part  of 
the  neck.  They  have  smaller  heads  than  the  Berkshire  hogs, 
and  long,  thin,  upright  ears ; short  bristles ; a line  skin  ; good 
hind  quarters,  and  a deep,  round  carcass.  They  are  also  small 
boned,  and  their  flesh  is  delicately  flavored.  They  produce 
large  litters,  but  are  reputed  bad  nurses. 


Fig.  29. 


The  Essex  Hog. 

6.  The  Chester  Breed . — This  breed  originated  in  Chester 
County,  Pennsylvania,  and  is  not  so  widely  known  as,  according 


* Country  Gentleman. 


Swine. 


103 


to  all  TCttk-iL)*,  it  deserves  to  be.  A correspondent  of  the  Coun- 
try Gentleman  gives  the  following  account  of  the  Chester  hog: 

“ The  Chester  hog  is  the  result  of  continued  careful  breeding 
and  judicious -crossing  in  this  county  during  the  last  thirty -five 
or  forty  years.  The  first  impulse  to  this  improvement,  it  is 
said,  was  the  importation  of  a pair  of  handsome  hogs  from 
China,  some  forty  years  since,  by  a sea-captain  then  residing  in 
this  vicinity.  Of  late  years,  however,  many  of  our  breeders 
have  been  laboring  to  bring  the  Chester  hog  up  to  an  acknowl- 
edged standard  of  excellence — to  define  its  points,  and  make  it 
as  distinctive  in  character,  and  as  easily  recognized,  as  a Berk- 
shire or  Suffolk.  Their  efforts,  we  think,  have  been  successful. 

u The  genuine  Chester  is  a pure  white,  long  body  and  square 
built,  with  small,  fine  bone,  and  will  produce  a greater  weight 
of  pork,  for  the  amount  of  food  consumed,  than  any  other  breed 
yet  tried  among  us.  A very  important  characteristic  of  the 
breed  is,  that  it  will  readily  fatten  at  any  age . Many  hogs,  it 
is  well  known,  will  not  fatten  while  they  are  growing,  or  until 
they  have  reached  their  full  size. 

“ The  average  weight  of  the  Chester  stock,  at  sixteen  months 
old,  is  from  500  to  600  lbs.,  and  when  kept  till  two  years  old, 
they  frequently  run  up  to  700  and  800  lbs.  Our  spring  pigs, 
when  killed  the  following  fall,  weigh  from  300  to  400  lbs., 
which  is  considered  the  most  desirable  weight  for  pork — pro- 
ducing hams  of  a more  salable  size  and  better  quality.  As  a 
general  rule,  our  farmers  do  not  care  to  have  their  hogs  weigh 
over  350  to  400  lbs.  To  reach  this  weight  at  nine  months  old, 
our  hogs,  of  course,  must  be  wrell  fed.  The  Chester  is  not  diff- 
erent from  other  stock  in  this  respect — to  thrive  well,  it  must 
be  wrell  taken  care  of. 

“ Experiments  have  been  made  in  crossing  the  Chester  with 
other  breeds — such  as  the  Berkshire,  Suffolk,  etc.,  and  the  re- 
sult has  been  an  inferior  stock  to  the  pure  Chester.  It  does 
improve  the  Berkshires  to  cross  them  with  the  Chester,  but 
we  have  found  no  advantage  in  crossing  the  Chester  with  any 
other.” 


104 


Domestic  Animals. 


IV. — POINTS. 

“There  is  evidently  much  diversity  in  swine  in  different 
circumstances  and  situations.  Like  other  descriptions  of  stock, 
they  should  he  selected  with  especial  reference  to  the  nature 
of  the  climate,  the  keep,  and  the  circumstances  of  the  manage- 
ment under  which  the  farm  is  conducted.  The  chief  points  to 
he  consulted  in  judging  of  the  breeds  of  this  animal  are  the 
form  or  shape  of  the  ear,  and  the  quality  of  the  hair.  The 
pendulous  or  lop  ear,  and  coarse,  harsh  hair,  are  commonly 
asserted  to  indicate  largeness  of  size  and  thickness  of  skin; 
while  erect  or  prick  ears  show  the  size  to  he  smaller,  but  the 
animals  to  he  more  quick  in  feeding. 

“In  the  selection  of  sWlne,  the  best  formed  are  considered 
to  be  those  which  are  not  too  long,  hut  full  in  the  head  and 
cheek ; thick  and  rather  short  in  the  neck ; fine  in  the  bone ; 
thick,  plump,  and  compact  in  the  carcass ; full  in  the  quarters, 
fine  and  thin  in  the  hide ; and  of  a good  size  according  to  the 
breed,  with,  above  all,  a kindly  disposition  to  fatten  well  and 
expeditiously  at  an  early  age.  Depth  of  carcass,  lateral  exten- 
sion, breadth  of  the  loin  and  breast,  proportionate  length,  mod- 
erate shortness  of  the  legs,  and  substance  of  the  gammons  and 
fore-arms,  are  therefore  absolute  essentials.  These  are  quali- 
ties to  produce  a favorable  balance  in  the  account  of  keep,  and 
a mass  of  weight  which  will  pull  the  scale  down.  In  propor- 
tion, too,  as  the  animal  is  capacious  in  the  loin  and  breast,  will 
be  generally  the  vigor  of  his  constitution ; his  legs  will  be 
thence  properly  distended,  and  he  will  have  a bold  and  firm 
footing  on  the  ground.’1* 

V. — FEEDING. 

Have  regular  hours  for  feeding  your  hogs ; nothing  is  more 
important.  Irregularity  irritates  the  digestive  organs,  and 
prevents  the  system  from  receiving  the  full  benefit  of  the  meal 
when  it  does  come.  Do  not  give  them  too  much  food  at  once, 


* American  Farmer’s  Encyclopedia. 


Swine. 


105 


as  they  are  apt  to  gorge  themselves ; or,  if  any  he  left  in  the 
trough,  to  return  to  it  frequently  till  it  is  all  gone.  In  both 
cases  their  digestive  organs,  and  consequently  their  ability  to 
fatten,  are  impaired. 

Swine  will  eat  animal  food,  but  it  is  not  favorable  to  the 
flavor  of  their  flesh,  and  should  always  he  withheld  while  they 
are  fattening. 

Pigs  always  eat  more  when  first  put  up  to  fatten  than  they 
do  afterward,  therefore  the  most  nutritious  food  should  be  re- 
served till  they  are  getting  pretty  fat. 

In  reference  to  fattening  the  hog,  a writer  in  the  Boston 
Cultivator  remarks : 

“ If  circumstances  are  favorable,  he  is  inclined  to  lay  up  such 
a supply  of  fat  during  antumn  as  would  render  it  unnecessary 
for  him  to  undergo  much  exercise  or  exposure  during  inclement 
weather.  With  plenty  of  lard  oil  to  keep  his  lamp  burning, 
he  would  prefer  dozing  in  a bed  of  leaves  in  the  forest  while 
the  ground  is  covered  with  snow,  rather  than  to  grub  daily  for 
a living.  He  fattens  most  rapidly  in  such  a state  of  the  atmo- 
sphere as  is  most  congenial  to  his  comfort — neither  too  hot  nor 
too  cold;  hence  the  months  of  September  and  October  are 
best  for  making  pork.  The  more  agreeable  the  weather,  the 
less  is  the  amount  of  food  required  to  supply  the  waste  of  life. 

“ Against  fattening  hogs  so  early  in  the  season,  it  may  be 
objected  that  Indian  corn,  the  crop  chiefly  depended  on  for  the 
purpose,  is  not  matured.  Taking  everything  into  considera- 
tion, it  may  be  better  to  begin  to  feed  corn  before  it  is  ripe,  or 
even  at  the  stage  of  considerable  greenness.  After  the  plant 
has  blossomed  it  possesses  a considerable  degree  of  sweetness ; 
hogs  will  chew  it,  swallow  the  juice,  and  leave  nothing  but  the 
dry  fibrous  matter,  which  they  eject  from  their  mouths  when 
no  more  sweetness  can  be  extracted.  They  thrive  on  this 
fodder,  and  will  continue  to  eat  it  till  the  nutriment  is  concen- 
trated in  the  ear,  and  then  they  will  eat  the  cob  and  grain 
together  till  the  cob  gets  hard  and  dry.  Farmers  who  have 
practiced  this  mode  of  feeding  consider  it  more  advantageous 
5* 


106 


Domestic  Animals. 


than  to  leave  the  whole  crop  to  ripen,  unless  they  have  a sup- 
ply of  old  corn  to  feed  with.  Even  in  the  latter  case,  it  is 
questionable  whether  hogs  will  not  do  better  on  corn  some- 
what green  than  they  would  on  hard  corn,  unground.  True, 
it  is  not  necessary  that  corn  should  be  fed  unground,  hut  much 
is  fed  in  this  condition,  no  doubt  at  a loss. 

“ In  many  parts  of  the  country,  swine  are  fed  considerably 
on  articles  which  are  not  readily  marketable,  as  imperfect 
fruits,  vegetables,  etc.  Where  such  articles  are  used,  cooking 
them  is  generally  economical.  A mixture  of  squashes  (either 
summer  or  winter  squashes),  pumpkins — the  nearer  ripe  the 
better — potatoes,  beets,  and  apples,  boiled  or  steamed,  and  a 
fourth  or  an  eighth  of  their  bulk  of  meal  stirred  in  while  the 
mass  is  hot,  forms  a dish  on  which  hogs  will  fatten  fast.  If 
skimmed  milk  or  whey  can  be  had,  the  cooked  food  may  be 
put  with  it  into  a suitable  tub  or  vat,  and  a slight  degree  of 
fermentation  allowed  to  take  place  before  the  whole  is  fed  out. 
The  animals  will  eat  it  with  avidity,  and  probably  derive  more 
benefit  from  it  than  if  it  had  not  been  fermented.  Articles 
which  are  of  a perishable  nature  should  be  used  first  in  fatten- 
ing swine,  in  order  to  prevent  waste  and  turn  all  the  products 
of  the  farm  to  the  best  account. 

u Another  quite  important  advantage  of  early  feeding  is  the 
less  trouble  in  regard  to  cooking  the  food  and  keeping  it  in 
proper  condition  to  feed  out.  The  cooking  may  he  done  out 
of  doors,  if  convenience  of  feeding  would  be  promoted  by  it, 
and  there  is  no  expense  or  trouble  to  guard  the  food  against 
freezing.” 

The  manner  of  fattening  hogs,  where  Indian  corn  is  used,  as 
at  the  South  and  West,  is  to  put  them  up  in  large,  open  pens 
on  the  ground,  without  litter  and  without  shelter.  Here  they 
are  left  to  burrow  and  sleep  in  mud  and  mire,  exposed  to  all 
weathers,  consuming,  probably,  before  they  get  “ripe  fat,”  one 
third  if  not  half  more  than  would  be  necessary  were  they  shel- 
tered in  a warm  pen,  with  clean  litter,  clean  water,  and  rich 
•hod  in  abundance,  free  alike  from  exposure  and  excitemeut. 


Swine.  107 

An  ample  supply  of  good  drinking  water  should  be  kept 
within  the  reach  of  every  animal. 

YI.— THE  PIGGERY. 

In  constructing  a piggery,  reference  should  he  had  to  the 
comfort  of  the  animals  as  well  as  to  convenience  in  feeding 
them.  It  should  be  large,  airy,  and  well- ventilated,  and  should 
have  (at  least  in  a large  establishment)  conveniences  for  cook- 
ing their  food.  It  should  by  all  means  be  comfortable  and  clean. 
It  has  been  generally  believed  that  the  hog  is  naturally  a filthy 
animal,  delighting  in  mud  and  mire.  This  is  certainly,  in  part 
at  least,  untrue.  Ho  animal  more  fully  appreciates  a clean,  dry 
bed.  To  illustrate  the  value  of  cleanliness,  a gentleman  in 
Norfolk  (England)  put  up  six  pigs  of  almost  exactly  the  same 
weight,  and  all  in  equal  health  to  fatten;  treated  them  all, 
except  in  one  particular,  exactly  alike,  giving  equal  quantities 
of  the  same  food  to  each  for  seven  weeks.  Three  of  these  pigs 
were  left  to  shift  for  themselves,  so  far  as  cleanliness  is  con- 
cerned, while  the  other  three  were  carefully  curried,  brushed, 
and  washed.  The  latter  consumed,  during  the  seven  weeks, 
less  food  by  five  bushels  than  the  former,  and  yet,  when  killed, 
weighed  more  by  thirty-two  pounds  on  an  average.  [For  a 
plan  for  a piggery,  see  uThe  House.”] 


108 


Domestic  Akimals. 


VI. 

IMPROVEMENT  OP  BREEDS. 

Like  produces  like. 

I.— SELECTION. 

ITH  such  examples  before  us  as  are  furnished 
by  the  English  Race  Horse,  the  Durham  Cow, 
and  the  South-Down  sheep,  where  shall  we 
place  limits  to  the  improvability  of  our  various 
domestic  animals  ? The  ameliorations  through 
which  these  improved  breeds  have  been  established  were  not 
accidental.  They  took  place  according  to  the  fixed  laws  of 
animal  life,  brought  to  bear  by  the  intelligence  of  man  upon 
special  points  and  for  special  objects.  Other  breeds  even  bet- 
ter than  these  may  he  produced  by  similar  means.  Bakewell, 
Culley,  Seabright,  Jaques,  Knight,  and  other  distinguished 
breeders  and  improvers  of  stock,  have  made  use  of  no  patented 
or  secret  process.  What  they  have  done,  any  intelligent  farmer 
may  do  by  the  use  of  the  same  easily  available  means.  To 
furnish  a few  hints  in  reference  to  these  means  is  the  purpose 
of  this  chapter. 

In  setting  about  originating  a new  breed  of  any  particular 
species  of  animal,  the  first  grand  point  is  the  selection  of  sire 
and  dam.  This  must  be  made  with  reference  to  the  particular 
qualities  to  which  you  desire  to  give  prominence,  as  well  as  to 
the  general  excellence  of  constitution,  form,  and  disposition 
which  should  distinguish  the  species.  Thus  Colonel  Jaques, 
in  originating  the  Cream-Pot  breed  of  cows,  already  referred 
to,  had  the  dairy  and  not  the  butcher  in  view,  and  took  his 
measures  accordingly.  The  results  of  a continued  selection  of 


Improvement  of  Breeds. 


109 


breeders  with  reference  to  their  qualities  as  milkers  has  been 
the  establishment  of  a permanent  breed  distinguished  probably 
above  all  others  as  dairy  cows.  So  the  sheep  breeders  of 
England,  having  the  production  of  mutton  as  their  principal 
object,  have  produced  the  New  Leicester,  the  South-Down,  and 
the  New  Oxfordshire  breeds,  distinguished  for  form,  size,  flavor, 
and  fattening  qualities  ; while  the  Spanish  and  German  breed- 
ers of  Merinos,  caring  only  for  the  wool,  have  given  their  breeds 
pre-eminently  excellent  fleeces.  Breeding  carefully  for  a few 
generations  with  a distinct  purpose  in  view,  will  not  fail  to  pro- 
duce astonishing  and  satisfactory  results. 

“The  alteration,”  Sir  John  Seabright  says,  “ which  may  be 
made  in  any  breed  of  animals  by  selection  can  hardly  be  con- 
ceived by  those  that  have  not  paid  some  attention  to  the  sub- 
ject.” 

To  breed  in  the  most  successful  manner,  the  male  and  female 
should  be  taken  when  they  are  in  the  highest  state  of  health, 
and  when  all  the  powers  and  attributes  which  are  wished  for 
and  which  it  is  designed  to  propagate  are  in  the  most  complete 
order  and  state  of  perfection. 

II.-IN-AND  IN  BREEDING. 

It  is  a well-estahlished  fact  in  human  physiology  that  the  in- 
termarriage of  near  relatives  tends  to  both  physical  and  mental 
degeneracy.  Analogy  would  lead  us  to  infer  that  the  same 
results  must  follow  close  breeding  among  the  lower  animals ; 
and  facts,  we  think,  prove  conclusively  that  this  is  the  case. 
Youatt,  high  authority  on  this  subject,  says : 

“ Breeding  in-and-in  has  many  advantages  to  a certain  ex- 
tent. It  may  be  pursued  until  the  excellent  form  and  quality 
of  the  breed  are  developed  and  established.  It  was  the  source 
whence  sprung  the  fine  cattle  and  sheep  of  Bake  well,  and  the 
superior  cattle  of  Colling ; but  disadvantages  attend  breeding 
‘in-and-in,’  and  to  it  must  be  traced  the  speedy  degeneracy, 
the  absolute  disappearance,  of  the  new  Leicester  cattle,  and  in 
the  hands  of  many  an  agriculturist,  the  impairment  of  consti- 


110 


Domestic  Animals. 


tution  and  decreased  value  of  the  new  Leicester  sheep  and 
the  short-horned  beasts.  It  has  therefore  become  a kind  of 
principle  with  the  agriculturist  to  effect  some  change  in  his 
stock  every  second  or  third  year;  and  that  change  is  most 
conveniently  effected  by  introducing  a new  bull  or  ram.  These 
should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  of  the  same  sort,  coming  from 
a similar  pasturage  and  climate,  but  possessing  no  relationship, 
or  at  most  a very  distant  one,  to  the  stock  to  which  he  is  in- 
troduced.” These  remarks  apply  to  all  descriptions  of  live- 
stock. In  cattle,  as  well  as  in  the  human  species,  defects  of 
organization  and  permanent  derangements  of  function  obtain, 
and  are  handed  down  when  the  relationship  is  close. 

III.— CROSSING. 

It  is  by  judicious  crossing  of  breeds  that  some  of  our  best 
varieties  of  domestic  animals  have  been  obtained.  A cross 
between  a superior  and  an  inferior  breed  results  in  a progeny 
superior  to  the  latter,  and,  for  a particular  use,  climate,  or 
locality,  often  better  than  the  former.  Thus  the  cross  between 
the  English  thorough-bred  horse  and  the  inferior  mare  of  the 
common  breed  of  Hew  England  gave  us  the  Morgan  breed, 
which  for  all  the  common  purposes  for  which  a horse  is  used 
is  superior  to  the  thorough-bred  animal  himself. 

In  breeding  from  stock  with  qualifications  of  different  descrip- 
tions and  in  different  degrees,  the  breeder  will  decide  what  are 
indispensable  or  desirable  qualities,  and  will  cross  with  animals 
with  a view  to  establish  them.  His  proceeding  will  be  of  the 
“ give-and-take”  kind.  He  will,  if  necessary,  submit  to  the  in- 
troduction of  a trifling  defect  in  order  that  he  may  profit  by  a 
great  excellence ; and  between  excellences  perhaps  somewhat 
incompatible  he  will  decide  which  is  the  greatest,  and  give  it 
the  preference. 

The  following  account  of  the  way  in  which  the  new  French 
breed  of  sheep,  La  Chamois,  was  originated,  throws  light  upon 
an  important  principle  in  breeding;  namely,  that  the  influence 
of  the  male  upon  the  offspring  will  be  the  stronger  the  purer 


Improvement  of  Breeds. 


Ill 


and  more  ancient  in  the  first  place  his  own  race  may  be ; and 
in  the  next  place,  the  less  resistance  is  offered  by  the  female 
through  the  possession  of  those  qualities  of  purity  and  long 
descent  which  are  so  valuable  in  the  sire. 

The  French  writer  says : “ With  a view  to  the  experiment 
proposed,  it  was  necessary  to  procure  English  rams  of  the 
purest  and  most  ancient  race,  and  unite  with  them  French 
ewes  of  the  modern  breeds,  or  rather  of  mixed  blood  forming 
no  distinct  breed  at  all.  It  is  easier  than  one  might  have 
supposed  to  combine  these  conditions.  On  the  one  hand,  I se- 
lected some  of  the  finest  rams  of  the  New-Kent  breed,  regen- 
erated by  Goord.  On  the  other  hand,  we  find  in  France 
many  border  countries  lying  between  distinct  breeds,  in  which 
districts  it  is  easy  to  find  flocks  participating  in  the  two  neigh- 
boring races.  Thus,  on  the  borders  of  Berry  and  La  Sologne 
one  meets  with  flocks  originally  sprung  from  a mixture  of  the 
two  distinct  races  that  are  established  in  those  two  provinces. 
Among  these,  then,  I chose  such  animals  as  seemed  least  defect- 
ive, approaching,  in  fact,  the  nearest  to,  or  rather  departing 
the  least  from,  the  form  which  I wished  ultimately  to  produce. 
These  I united  with  animals  of  another  mixed  breed,  picking 
out  the  best  I could  find  on  the  borders  of  La  Beauce  and 
Touraine,  which  blended  the  Tourangelle  and  native  Merino 
blood  of  those  other  two  districts.  From  this  mixture  was  ob- 
tained an  offspring  combining  the  four  races  of  Berry,  Sologne, 
Touraine,  and  Merino,  without  decided  character,  without 
fixity,  with  little  intrinsic  merit  certainly,  but  possessing  the 
advantage  of  being  used  to  our  climate  and  management,  and 
bringing  to  bear  on  the  new  breed  to  be  formed,  an  influence 
almost  annihilated  by  the  multiplicity  of  its  component  ele- 
ments. 

“ Now  what  happens  when  such  mixed-blood  ewes  are  put 
to  a pure  New-Kent  ram  ? A lamb  is  obtained  containi  ug 
fifty  hundredths  of  the  purest  and  most  ancient  English  blood, 
with  twelve  and  a half  hundredths  of  four  different  French 
races,  which  are  individually  lost  in  the  preponderance  of 


112 


Domestic  Animals. 


English  blood,  and  disappear  almost  entirely,  leaving  the  im- 
proving type  in  the  ascendant.  The  influence,  in  fact,  of  this 
type  was  so  decided  and  so  predominant,  that  all  the  lambs 
produced  strikingly  resembled  each  other,  and  even  Englishmen 
took  them  for  animals  of  their  own  country.  But  what  was 
still  more  decisive,  when  these  young  ewes  and  rams  were  put 
together  they  produced  lambs  closely  resembling  themselves, 
without  any  marked  return  to  the  features  of  the  old  French 
races  from  which  the  grandmother  ewes  were  derived.  Some 
slight  traces  only  might  perhaps  be  detected  here  and  there  by 
an  experienced  eye.  Even  these,  however,  soon  disappeared, 
such  animals  as  showed  them  being  carefully  weeded  out  of 
the  breeding  flock.  This  may  certainly  he  called  c fixing  a 
l>reedf  when  it  becomes  every  year  more  capable  of  repro- 
ducing itself  with  uniform  and  marked  features.” 

IY.— ADDITIONAL  HINTS. 

Farmers,  like  men  in  other  branches  of  business,  have  an  eye 
on  the  profits  of  their  industry ; and  the  more  intelligent  of 
them  are  now  fully  convinced  of  the  fact,  that  with  proper  care 
and  protection  the  improved  and  finer  breeds  do  give  a greater 
product  with  the  same  amount  of  food  than  the  inferior  and 
coarser  breeds.  It  costs  but  little  if  any  more  to  keep  a cow 
that  will  give  a large  quantity  of  rich  milk  than  one  that  does 
not  pay  for  her  food ; strong,  active  horses  are  far  more  profit- 
able than  poor,  lazy  ones ; a bushel  of  corn  will  make  twice  as 
much  pork  when  fed  to  a Berkshire  or  a Suffolk  as  to  a Land- 
Pike  or  Racer,  and  the  best  sheep  will  yield  double  the  wool 
and  bring  triple  the  price  of  the  poorer  kinds. 

blow  every  farmer  may,  in  a few  years,  make  great  improve- 
ment in  his  stock  by  selecting  his  best  animals  to  breed  from, 
with  an  occasional  infusion  of  fresh  blood  from  other  flocks 
and  herds  (without  reference  to  any  of  the  celebrated  improved 
breeds),  combined  with  proper  attention  to  their  feeding  and 
general  management ; but  unless  he  has  a particular  taste  for 
breeding  animals,  and  unusual  facilities  for  the  business,  he  wilJ 


Improvement  of  Breeds.  113 

find  it  more  convenient  and  cheaper  to  make  an  infusion  of  the 
improved  blood  into  his  stock,  choosing  such  as  is  best  fitted 
for  his  purpose.  A bull  or  a ram  of  one  of  the  best  breeds 
will  soon,  if  judiciously  managed,  make  a great  change  for  the 
better  in  his  stock. 

Another  important  fact  must  be  borne  in  mind.  “ Improved 
breeds  owe  their  present  degree  of  perfection,  whatever  it  may 
be,  only  to  the  skill  which  has  been  exercised  in  their  selection, 
breeding,  and  management  for  a number  of  generations  and  a 
long  series  of  years.  This  attention,  we  learn  from  the  extract 
above,  must  be  continued  if  we  wish  to  retain  the  valuable 
qualities  that  it  has  placed  within  our  reach ; and  careful  atten- 
tion to  the  selection,  the  wants,  the  comfort,  and  the  health  of 
one’s  stock  is  thus  shown  to  be  not  only  the  dictate  of  economy 
for  the  time  being,  but  a matter  of  importance  in  the  future, 
from  the  influence  it  exerts  on  the  progeny  as  well  as  on  the 
parent.  Improvements  may  be  bred  out  as  fast  or  faster  than 
it  can  be  bred  in.  Until  the  average  of  care  which  our  farm 
stock  now  receives  becomes  much  greater,  it  may  be  inexpedi- 
ent to  advise  the  maintenance  of  a herd  or  flock  of  pure  im- 
proved blood  for  ordinary  farm  purposes ; but,  by  beginning 
with  grades — employing  the  services  of  an  improved  male  to 
engraft  upon  “native”  stock— and  by  degrees  acquiring  the 
habit  of  paying  closer  attention  to  their  necessities  and  com- 
forts, not  only  will  our  cattle  and  sheep  be  gradually  and  fun- 
damentally bettered,  but  the  farmer  will  be  preparing  to  avail 
himself  of  breeds  already  rendered  capable  of  giving,  with 
proper  attention,  the  greatest  product  for  a specified  amount  of 
food ; and  animals  bred  to  this  point  will  then  come  into  his 
hands  to  be  improved,  not  to  be  deteriorated.”* 


* Country  Gentleman. 


114 


Domestic  Animals 


VII. 

DISEASES  AND  THEIR  CURE. 

Throw  physic  to  the  dogs.—ShaJcspeare, 

I.— HYGIENE. 

HROW  physic  to  the  dogs,”  if  you  will,  but, 
be  assured,  they  are  quadrupeds  of  too  much 
good  sense  to  swallow  it ; and  the  other  domes- 
tic animals  will  hardly  take,  except  under  com- 
pulsion, what  their  canine  companions  and  pro- 
tectors thus  reject.  You  will  find  less  difficulty  in  forcing  it 
down  the  throats  of  their  more  frequently  diseased  and  oftener 
doctored  masters. 

A large  portion  of  almost  every  work  on  domestic  animals 
is  taken  up  with  directions  for  the  treatment  of  their  diseases. 
Our  limits  do  not  permit  us  to  dwell  long  on  this  point,  nor  do 
we  deem  it  necessary. 

In  their  wild  state,  animals  are  ordinarily  subject  to  few  if 
any  diseases.  They  live  according  to  the  laws  of  their  being — 
live  naturally  and  healthfully,  and,  unless  they  meet  a violent 
death  at  the  hands  of  man  or  of  some  of  their  natural  enemies, 
die  a natural  death.  Our  domestic  animals,  as  they  are  gener- 
ally managed,  live  under  conditions  less  favorable  to  health, 
and  sometimes,  although  with  comparative  infrequency,  get  sick. 
The  fault  is  generally  in  the  keeper  or  breeder,  and  not  in  the 
animal  or  in  the  conditions  inseparable  from  its  domestic 
state.  With  animals,  as  with  men,  disease  arises  from  some 
infringement  of  the  organic  laws ; but  their  masters,  and  not 
themselves,  are  responsible  for  the  infringement.  When  they 
get  sick,  however,  in  consequence  of  the  false  conditions  under 


Diseases  and  theie  Cube. 


115 


which  they  are  forced  to  live,  man  adds  insult  to  injury  by 
forcing  his  nauseous  and  poisonous  drugs  down  their  reluctant 
throats.  If  they  recover  in  spite  ?f  both  the  disease  and  the 
remedy,  drugs  get  the  credit. 

Well,  let  those  use  drugs  who  have  faith  in  them,  either  in 
the  treatment  of  themselves,  their  families,  or  their  domestic 
animals;  hut  the  reader  wffio  looks  in  this  little  manual  for 
directions  for  their  use  will  he  disappointed.  We  can  not  con- 
scientiously give  them. 

Animals  horn  of  well  developed  and  perfectly  healthy  parents 
(and  none  hut  perfectly  healthy  and  well  developed  animals 
should  ever  he  permitted  to  become  breeders)  may  almost  uni- 
versally ~be  Jcept  in  perfect  health.  With  a sufficient  quantity  of 
wholesome  food,  pure  water,  protection  against  storms  and  cold 
in  winter,  complete  ventilation  and  perfect  cleanliness  in  their 
habitations,  and  general  attention  to  their  comfort  and  health, 
there  will  be  little  call  for  medical  treatment  of  any  kind ; and 
in  the  rare  cases  which  may  occur,  we  would  trust  mainly  to 
Nature,  co-operating  with  her  as  we  could  by  means  of  diet,  air, 
exercise,  and  water,  on  the  same  principles  precisely  that  are 
applied  in  the  treatment  of  human  beings  without  drugs. 

The  Water-Cure  or  Hydropathic  system  has  not  yet  been  ex- 
tensively applied  to  animals ; but  so  far  as  it  has  been  adopted, 
it  has  produced  the  most  satisfactory  results ; and  for  the  bene- 
fit of  such  of  our  readers  as  may  have  lost  their  faith  in  drugs, 
and  desire  to  make  a trial  of  a more  rational  method,  we  lay 
before  them  the  following  essay,  kindly  furnished  for  this  work 
by  that  distinguished  physician  and  writer,  E.  T.  Trail,  M.D., 
Principal  of  the  New  York  Hygeio-Therapeutic  College. 

II.— WATER-CURE  FOR  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

BY  K.  T.  TRALL,  M.D. 

The  habits  of  domestic  animals  being,  on  the  whole,  less 
unphysiological  than  those  of  human  beings,  their  diseases  are, 
as  a necessary  consequence,  iess  numerous  and  less  complicated. 
They  may  all  be  grouped  under  the  head  of  fevers , inflam * 


116 


Domestic  Animals. 


mentions,  spasms  or  colics , fluxes , eruptions , glandula/r 
affections.  And  for  all  of  these  disorders  we  are  satisfied  that 
proper  attention  to  hygiene,  as  understood  by  the  term  Hy- 
dropathy or  Water-Treatment,  is  as  much  superior  to  drug  med- 
ication as  it  has  proved  to  be  in  the  case  of  human  beings 
similarly  affected. 

Fever  is  easily  known  by  the  languor  and  lassitude  which 
the  animal  manifests,  with  great  indisposition  to  exercise,  fol- 
lowed by  chills  or  shivering,  and  this  succeeded  by  preternatu- 
ral heat  on  the  surface,  loss  of  appetite,  furred  tongue,  frequent 
or  hard  or  bounding  pulse,  etc.  The  animal  should  be  placed 
in  a clean,  quiet,  well-ventilated  room,  protected  from  currents 
of  cold  air  in  winter  or  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun  in  sum- 
mer, and  the  temperature  should  be  kept  at  a uniform  and 
moderate  degree  continually. 

When  the  skin  becomes  very  hot,  it  should  be  washed  or 
bathed  all  over,  and  a blanket  or  two  immediately  applied,  so 
as  to  promote  moderate  perspiration.  Or  the  wet  sheet  may 
be  applied,  taking  care  to  cover  it  well  with  blankets,  so  as 
to  arrest  chilliness.  When  the  sheet  becomes  quite  warm,  it 
should  be  removed,  and  the  surface  washed  with  cold  water ; 
and  if  the  fever  heat  continues,  it  may  be  re-applied  for  an  hour 
at  a time,  two  or  three  times  a day,  until  the  morbid  heat  is 
entirely  subdued. 

The  same  general  plan  of  treatment,  with  a slight  modifi- 
cation, applies  to  all  inflammatory  complaints.  With  domestic 
animals  as  with  human  beings,  the  organs  most  liable  to  acute 
inflammation  are  the  lungs  and  the  bowels,  and  the  only  spe- 
cialty of  treatment  in  these  affections,  in  addition  to  the  gen- 
eral plan  applicable  to  the  constitutional  disturbance  we  call 
fever,  is  the  continual  application  of  wet  cloths  well  covered 
with  dry  ones  to  the  chest  or  bowels,  as  either  is  the  seat  of 
the  inflammation,  and  the  employment  of  copious  enemas  of 
tepid  water  to  free  the  bowels. 

Spasmodic  diseases  of  all  kinds,  and  all  the  varieties  of  colic, 
are  the  results  of  local  obstruction  caused  by  over-exertion 


Diseases  and  their  Cure.  117 

over-heating,  or  something  improper  or  indigestible  in  the  food. 
Grain,  and  especially  Indian  meal,  fed  to  a horse  while  in  a 
state  of  great  heat  or  great  fatigue  from  violent  exertion,  is  fre- 
quently the  immediate  cause  of  colic  and  spasms.  In  these  cases 
the  animal  should  have  his  abdomen  fomented  with  wet  cloths 
applied  as  warm  as  can  be  borne  ; warm  water  should  be  given 
the  animal  to  drink,  or  poured  down  his  throat  from  a bottle, 
and  copious  enemas  of  warm  water  should  be  administered. 

Fluxes — as  diarrhea , dysentery , cholera , influenza , catarrh , 
etc. — are  the  indications  of  a general  obstruction  of  the  system 
or  impurity  of  the  fluids,  with  an  effort  at  depuration  in  a par- 
ticular direction.  The  usual  practice  of  checking  the  discharge 
suddenly  by  pungents,  stimulants,  and  astringents  is  always 
injurious  and  generally  dangerous.  On  the  contrary,  the  action 
of  the  surface  should  be  restored  by  bathing,  with  friction  or 
the  dripping-sheet,  and  all  irritating  matters  removed  from  the 
stomach  and  bowels  by  means  of  warm  and  tepid  water,  as  in 
the  case  of  colics.  There  will  be  no  danger  from  the  discharges 
if  the  cause  is  removed,  and  if  it  is  not  removed,  the  sudden 
suppression  of  the  evacuations  may  terminate  in  a worse  in- 
flammation or  speedy  death. 

Affections  of  the  skin  and  glands  are  only  to  be  cured  by 
purifying  the  whole  mass  of  blood.  To  repel  an  eruption  from 
the  surface,  or  rather  a glandular  tumor,  is  not  curing  the  ani- 
mal ; indeed,  it  is  only  changing  an  external  disease  to  an  inter- 
nal one.  Thus  attention  to  a pure  diet,  to  fresh  air,  and  to 
clean  apartments,  each  and  all  are  essential  to  recovery.  Many 
of  these  cachexies , as  they  are  called  in  medical  books,  originate 
from  the  effluvia  of  their  own  excretions,  as  in  cases  where 
the  urine  and  feces  are  permitted  to  accumulate  in  the  stalls, 
or  under  the  floors  of  the  stables. 


118 


Domestic  Animals. 


VIII. 

POULTRY. 

Also  fowls  were  prepared  for  me. — Nehemiah  v.  18. 

I.— THE  DOMESTIC  FOWL. 

OBODY  knows  when  or  by  whom  fowls  were 
first  domesticated.  There  are  at  most  only  two 
or  three  allusions  to  them  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  these  are  of  doubtful  import.  In 
our  motto,  for  instance,  the  word  fowls  may 
mean  simply  birds. 

In  the  time  of  Aristotle,  who  wrote  three  hundred  and  fifty 
years  before  Christ,  however,  they  were  ovidently  common ; 
for  he  speaks  of  them  as  familiarly  as  a naturalist  of  the  pres- 
ent day.  Everybody  is  familiar  with  the  beautiful  allusions  to 
them  in  the  New  Testament. 

The  wild  origin  of  our  domestic  fowl  is  entirely  unknown. 
The  race,  like  that  of  the  Dodo,  is  probably  extinct.  The  Wild 
Turkey  will  sooner  or  later  share  the  same  fate. 

Crested  or  top-knotted  fowls  appear  to  have  been  unknown 
to  the  ancients.  The  earliest  notice  of  them  occurs  in  Aldro- 
vandi,  who  speaks  ol  a hen  with  “a  crest  like  a lark.” 

Domestic  fowls  now  abound  in  all  warm  and  temperate 
climates,  but  disappear  as  we  approach  the  poles.  They  were 
found  in  abundance  on  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  by  their 
earliest  discoverers.  How  they  got  there  nobody  knows. 
Probably  in  the  same  way  that  their  human  inhabitants  found 
their  insular  homes.  Ellis,  in  his  “Polynesian  Researches,” 
says:  “The  traditions  of  the  people  state  that  fowls  have 
existed  on  the  islands  (Tahiti)  as  long  as  the  people;  that  they 


Poultry. 


119 


came  with  the  first  colonists  by  whom  the  islands  were  peo- 
pled ; or  that  they  were  made  by  Taarva  at  the  same  time 
that  men  were  made.” 

The  courage  of  the  cock  is  emblematic,  his  gallantry  ad- 
mirable, his  sense  of  discipline  and  subordination  most  exem- 
plary. See  how  a good  game-cock  of  two  or  three  years’  ex- 
perience will,  in  five  minutes,  restore  order  into  an  uproarious 
poultry-yard ! He  does  not  use  harsh  means  of  coercion  when 
mild  will  suit  the  purpose.  A look,  a gesture,  a deep  chuck- 
ling growl,  gives  the  hint  that  turbulence  is  no  longer  to  be  per- 
mitted ; and  if  these  are  not  effectual,  severer  punishment  is 

fearlessly  administered His  politeness  to  females  is 

as  marked  as  were  Lord  Chesterfield’s  attentions  to  old  ladies, 
and  much  more  unaffected.  Hor  does  he  merely  act  the  agree- 
able dangler ; when  occasion  requires,  he  is  also  their  brave 
defender,  if  he  be  good  for  anything. 

“ The  hen  is  deservedly  the  acknowledged  pattern  of  mater- 
nal love.  When  her  passion  of  philoprogenitiveness  is  disap- 
pointed by  the  failure  or  subtraction  of  her  brood,  she  will 
either  go  on  sitting  till  her  natural  powers  fail,  or  will  violent- 
ly kidnap  the  young  of  some  other  fowl  and  insist  upon  adopt- 
ing them.”* 

The  varieties  of  the  domestic  fowl  are  almost  numberless, 
but  only  a few  of  them  are  worthy  of  more  than  a mere  men- 
tion here.  Among  these  we  give  the  first  place  to — 

1.  The  Spanish  Fowl. — The  thorough-bred  Spanish  fowl  is 
entirely  black,  so  far  as  feathers  are  concerned,  with  a greenish 
metallic  luster.  The  combs  of  both  the  male  and  the  female 
are  very  large  and  of  a brilliant  scarlet ; that  of  the  hen  droops 
over  on  one  side.  Their  most  singular  feature  is  a large  white 
patch,  or  ear-lobe,  on  the  cheek,  which  in  some  specimens  ex- 
tends over  a large  part  of  the  face.  It  is  a fleshy  substance, 
similar  to  the  wattle,  and  is  small  in  the  hens  but  large  and 
conspicuous  in  the  cocks,  giving  them  a very  striking  appear- 


* Kev.  Edmund  Saul  Dixon. 


120 


Domestic  Animals. 


ance.  There  are  few,  if  any,  handsomer  fowls  than  the  genuine 
Spanish  ; although  some  that  are  called  by  that  name,  but  are 
really  nameless  mongrels,  are  ugly  enough  for  scarecrows. 

The  hens  are  great  layers,  being  in  this  respect,  we  believe, 
superior  to  every  other  breed.  Their  eggs  are  very  large,  quite 
white,  and  of  a peculiar  shape,  being  quite  thick  at  both  ends, 
although  tapering  off  a little  at  each.  A correspondent  of  the 
Country  Gentleman , relating  his  experience  with  them,  says : 
“ My  last  year’s  June  pullets  commenced  to  lay  in  December, 
and  the  first  of  February  all  of  my  Spanish  hens  laid  more  or 
less.  I got,  in  the  six  months,  from  the  first  of  March  to  the 
first  of  September,  eighty-five  dozen  of  eggs  from  seven  pullets, 
and  I now  get  from  four  to  six  eggs  per  day ; and  my  honest 


Fig.  30. 


The  Spanish  Fowl. 


conviction  is,  that  the  true  Black  Spanish  hen  will  laj  from 
‘five  to  ten  per  cent.’  more  weight  of  eggs  than  any  other 
breed.” 


Poultry. 


123 


On  the  other  hand,  it  must  he  confessed  that  these  Spanish 
dames  are  not  good  mothers  or  nurses,  even  when  they  do  sit, 
“ which,”  as  Dixon  remarks,  u they  will  not  often  condescend 
to  do.”  This  last  trait  of  character  will  prove  a recommend- 
ation rather  than  otherwise  with  those  who  care  for  eggs 
rather  than  chickens.  When  the  latter  are  wanted,  it  is  better 
to  place  the  eggs  under  a hen  of  another  and  more  motherly 
breed — a Dorking,  for  instance. 

The  Spanish  fowls  hear  confinement  very  well;  are  not 
large  eaters  ; grow  rapidly ; mature  early  ; and  are  only  excel- 
led for  the  table  by  the  Game  fowl  and  the  Dorking.  The  aver- 
age weight  of  the  mature  birds  is  about  six  pounds  for  the  male 
and  five  for  the  female. 

It  is  important,  hut  somewhat  difficult  at  present,  to  procure 
the  true,  unmixed,  white-faced  Black  Spanish  breed. 

There  is  another  breed  called  the  Gray  or  Speckled  Spanish, 
hut,  however  excellent  they  may  he  (and  they  are  highly 
spoken  of  ),  they  are  probably  a mixed  breed. 

2.  The  Dorking  Fowl. — The  Dorking  takes  its  name  from 
a town  in  Surrey  County,  England,  where  it  is  supposed  to 
have  originated. 

The  Dorkings  are  divided  into  the  Colored  and  the  White 
varieties ; the  former  including  the  Gray,  Speckled,  Spangled, 
Japanned,  etc.  These  are  not  permanent  varieties,  however, 
as  they  can  not  be  bred  true  to  color.  The  Gray  and  Spangled 
comprise  the  more  common  forms  in  which  the  Colored  Dork- 
ing family  is  presented  to  us. 

The  White  Dorking  is  a smaller-framed  bird  than  the  Gray, 
and  should  he  perfectly  white  in  plumage,  bill,  and  legs.  They 
should  have  rose-combs.  They  are  less  hardy  than  the  colored 
variety,  and  not  well  adapted  to  a northern  climate. 

The  Dorking  is  a fowl  of  rare  beauty,  large  in  size,  symmet- 
rical in  form,  and  often  gorgeous  in  plumage.  Its  flesh  is 
white,  firm,  and  of  excellent  flavor ; and  for  the  general  pur- 
poses of  the  table  it  is  inferior  to  none,  although,  as  regards 
flavor  alone,  the  Game  fowl  would  perhaps  take  precedence. 

6 


122 


Domestic  Animals. 


As  layers,  the  Dorking  hens  take  high  rank,  but  are,  we  think, 
inferior  to  the  Spanish.  They  are  persistent  sitters,  and  make 
excellent  mothers  and  nurses.  The  editor  of  the  American 


The  Dokking  Fowl. 


Agriculturist  says:  “A  little  knowledge  in  keeping  ttem 
[the  Dorkings]  justified  us  in  pronouncing  them  entitled  to  the 
same  rank  among  barn-yard  fowls  that  the  Short  Horns  have 
taken  among  cattle  ; and  years  of  experience  in  breeding  them 
have  confirmed  us  in  this  opinion.” 

John  Giles,  a well  known  poultry  breeder  of  Woodstock, 
Conn.,  expresses  the  following  opinion : “ After  forty-odd 
years’  experience  with  the  gallinaceous  tribes,  T say  that,  in  my 
humble  opinion,  no  breed  of  fowls  will  compare  with  the  true 
Dorking  as  good  mothers,  sitters,  and  layers,  giving  eggs  in 
abundance,  chickens  easily  reared,  and  which  come  to  perfec- 
tion  sooner  than  any  other  poultry.  The  flesh  is  of  a delicatb 
white,  fine  in  the  grain,  and  delicious  flavor.  The  Black  Span- 


Poultry. 


123 


ish  is  only  second  to  the  true  Dorking,  in  not  raising  their  own 
young,  seldom  or  ever  wanting  to  sit ; but  what  they  lose  in 
that  point  is  more  than  made  up  by  the  abundance  of  eggs 
By  some  they  are  called  the  everlasting  layers ; eggs  large ; 
flesh  and  skin  beautifully  white  and  juicy;  chickens  grow  rap 
idly.” 

A cross  between  the  Dorking  and  the  Game  fowl  is  greatly 
esteemed,  and  is  thought  to  be  more  profitable  than  the  thor- 
ough-bred Dorking. 

The  possession  of  the  fifth  claw  is  generally  considered  as  an 
essential  characteristic  of  the  Dorking,  but  it  is  not  always 
present,  and  might  and  should  be  u bred  out.”  The  weight  of 
the  Dorking  at  maturity  varies  from  five  to  eight  pounds. 

3.  The  Polish  Fowl. — The  origin  of  this  family  of  fowls  is 
entirely  unknown.  They  do  not  exist  in  Poland  at  the  present 
time,  and  there  is  no  evidence  that  they  were  ever  known 
there ; but  this  is  a matter  of  small  moment.  Their  beauty 


Fig.  32. 


The  Polish  Fowl. 


124 


Domestic  Animals. 


and  excellence  are  undisputed.  The  large  top-knot  is  one  of 
the  principal  characteristics  of  the  Polish  fowl,  and  is  conspic- 
uous in  all  its  varieties. 

The  varieties  of  the  Polish  or  Poland  fowl  are  numerous; 
but  the  principal  ones  are  the  White-Crested  Black,  the  Golden 
Spangled,  and  the  Silver  Spangled. 

In  the  White-Crested  Black  Poland  cock  the  plumage,  with 
the  exception  of  the  crest,  should  be  uniformly  black,  with  rich 
metallic  tints  of  green.  The  shorter  crest  feathers  at  the  base 
of  the  bill  are  black,  the  rest  of  the  purest  white.  The  beak 
and  legs  are  generally  black.  The  same  colors  are  required  in 
the  hen.  Their  form  and  bearing  are  remarkably  good.  The 
cock  should  weigh  from  five  to  five  and  a half  pounds,  and  the 
hen  about  four  pounds. 

The  Golden  Spangled  and  the  Silver  Spangled  Polands  are 
splendid  birds.  u The  beautiful  regularity  of  their  markings, 
the  vivid  contrasts  in  their  colors,  together  with  their  unique 
appearance  generally,  entitle  them  to  the  first  rank  among  the 
more  ornamental  varieties.” 

The  Polands,  and  especially  the  Black  variety,  are  gener- 
ally but  not  invariably  great  layers,  commencing  early  in  the 
spring,  and  seldom  wanting  to  sit  till  late  in  the  summer,  if 
at  all.  They  can  not  always  be  depended  upon  to  hatch  a 
clutch  of  chickens,  even  when  they  manifest  a desire  to  sit,  fre- 
quently deserting  the  nest  after  five  or  six  days’  occupation.* 
They  are  not  quite  so  hardy  as  some  other  breeds,  but  with  a 
fair  degree  of  attention  are  easily  reared.  As  a table  fowl,  the 
Polish  is  among  the  best. 

4.  The  Hamburg  Fowl. — Of  the  Hainburgs  there  are  sev- 
eral varieties.  The  Silver  Penciled,  known  also  as  the  Bolton 
Gray,  have  the  plumage  white,  with  the  exception  of  the  wings 
and  tail,  which  are  furred  with  black.  The  average  weight  of 
the  cock  is  about  four  and  a half  pounds.  The  hen  usually 
weighs  about  a pound  less.  The  Golden  Penciled  Hamburg 


* Wingfield. 


Poultry 


125 


differs  from  the  Silver  Penciled  chiefly  in  the  ground  color  of 
its  plumage,  which  is  a yellowish  buff  or  yellowish  hay,  and  in 
being  rather  larger.  The  legs  of  both  these  varieties  should  be 
blue.  The  Silver  Spangled  and  Golden  Spangled  differ  from 
the  Penciled  sorts,  in  having  black,  circular,  oval,  or  crescent- 
shaped spangles  on  the  tail  and  wing,  instead  of  bars.  They 
are  somewhat  larger  than  the  Penciled  birds  and  have  darke? 


Fig.  33. 


The  Silver  Spangled  Hamburg  Fowl. 


legs.  The  Black  Hamburg  has  a plumage  of  a uniformly  rich, 
glossy-green  black. 

All  the  Hamburgs  are  beautiful  fowls,  rich  in  plumage  and 
fine  in  form  ; great  layers  (the  eggs,  however,  are  small) ; seh 
dom  desire  to  sit ; and  are  good  for  the  table,  falling  but  little 
below  the  best  varieties  in  this  respect,  although  not  so  large 
as  some  others. 

They  are  impatient  of  confinement,  and  to  do  well  must  have 


126 


Domestic  Animals 


Fig.  3i. 


The  Golden  Spangled  Hamburg  Fowl. 

a wide  range  of  grassy  lawn  or  pasture.  Of  the  different  vari- 
eties we  prefer  the  Golden  Spangled,  but  others  may  choose 
differently. 

5.  The  Dominique  Fowl . — This  is  a very  common  breed  in 


The  Dominique  Cock. 


Poultry.  127 

this  country,  but  none  the  less  valuable  or  beautiful  on  that 
account. 

“ The  prevailing  and  true  color  of  the  Dominique  fowl  is  a 
lightish  ground,  barred  crosswise,  and  softly  shaded  with  a 
slaty-blue,  as  indicated  in  the  portrait  of  the  cock  figured  on 
the  previous  page.  The  comb  is  variable,  some  being  single, 
while  others  are  double — most,  however,  are  single.  The  iris, 
bright  orange ; feet,  legs,  and  bill,  bright  yellow ; and  some 
light  flesh  color.  We  prefer  the  yellow  legs  and  bill,  and  con- 
sider them  well  worthy  of  promotion  in  the  poultry-yard. 

“We  seldom  see  bad  hens  of  this  variety;  and  take  them 
‘all-in-all,’  we  do  not  hesitate  in  pronouncing  them  one  of  the 
best  and  most  profitable  fowls,  being  hardy,  good  layers,  care- 
ful nurses,  and  affording  excellent  eggs,  and  the  quality  of  their 
flesh  highly  esteemed.  The  hens  are  not  large,  but  plump  and 
full  breasted.  The  eggs  average  about  two  ounces  each,  and 
are  of  porcelain  whiteness.”* 

6.  The  Leghorn  Fowl. — The  Leghorns  are  believed  to  be 
cousins  of  the  Spanish,  whom  they  resemble  in  general  form. 
They  have  been  considerably  experimented  with  in  this  country, 
and  are  highly  extolled  by  some  breeders ; but  the  general  ver- 
dict is  that  they  are  inferior  to  the  Spanish.! 

7.  The  Shanghai  Fowl . — The  Shanghai  fowl  was  originally 
brought  from  the  northern  part  of  China,  particularly  about 
the  city  of  Shanghai,  from  which  it  takes  its  name.  It  is  the 
common  domestic  fowl  of  that  part  of  the  country. 

The  Shanghai  cock  is  a large,  bold,  upright  bird,  strongly 
distinguished  for  the  length,  loudness,  hoarseness,  and  awk- 
wardness of  his  half  guttural  crow.  Most  of  the  sub- varieties 


* Country  Gentleman. 

t A correspondent  of  one  of  the  agricultural  papers,  however,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing testimony  in  their  favor : “ I have  kept  in  different  inclosures  six  of  the 
most  approved  varieties  of  fowls,  for  four  months  (from  the  1st  of  April  to  the 
present)— have  registered  the  number  of  ■ ggs  laid  by  each  variety  every  day, 
and  the  Leghorns  have  laid  almost  three  eggs  to  any  other  bird’s  one  not  ex- 
cepting the  far  famed  Black  Spanish.”— It.  W.  Pearsall,  liar 'em,  X Y 


128 


Domestic  Animals. 


have  large,  single,  serrated  combs,  the  top  running  considerably 
beyond  its  point  of  attachment  to  the  head.  His  neck  is  about 
nine  inches  long,  and  is  somewhat  arched ; wings  short,  round- 
ed outward,  their  shoulders  concealed  in  the  breast-feathers, 
and  their  tips  covered  by  the  body-feathers  and  the  saddle- 
hackle.  His  breast  is  broad,  but  wanting  in  fullness ; the 
thighs  are  wide  apart,  large,  comparatively  short,  smooth  in 


The  Shanghai  Fowl. 


some,  in  others  heavily  feathered  quite  dowm  to  the  knees; 
shanks  should  be  short,  and,  with  the  booted,  more  or  less 
feathered  down  the  outer  edge,  quite  to  the  end  of  the  outer 
toe;  the  stern  is  densely  covered  with  long  downy  feathers, 
technically  called  “fluff,”  well  rounded  out;  the  hackle,  both 
of  neck  and  saddle,  is  long  and  abundant;  while  the  tail  ia 
Rhort  and  sometimes  covered  by  the  long  saddle-feathers.  Th« 


Poultry. 


129 


weight  of  a full-grown  bird  is  from  ten  to  twelve  pounds, 
while  a few  have  weighed  more.  The  hen  agrees  in  general 
character  with  that  of  her  liege  lord,  but  is  two  or  three  pounds 
lighter. 

The  legs  of  both  sexes  should  be  yellow,  though  we  have 
seen  some  very  fine  white  birds  with  a greenish-blue  leg,  and 
superior  black  ones  with  dark  legs.  * 

The  principal  sub-varieties  of  the  Shanghai  family  are  the 
White,  the  Buff,  the  Cinnamon,  the  Partridge-colored,  the  Gray, 
or  Brahmapootra  of  a few  writers,  the  Dominique,  and  the 
Black. 

About  ten  years  ago  there  raged  among  our  fowl  fanciers  a 
most  alarming  Shanghai  fever.  It  had  its  “run,”  and  its  vic- 
tims mostly  survived.  We  presume  they  will  never  have  a 
second  attack. 

We  can  not  advise  our  readers  to  breed  Shanghai  fowls,  and 
regret  being  obliged  to  mention  them  at  all. 

8.  The  Cochin  China  Fowl , etc. — A missionary  in  China 
says : “ There  is  no  difference  at  all  between  the  Shanghais 
and  Cochin  Chinas.  In  reality  they  all  are  Shanghais.  Coch- 
in Chinese  fowls  are  a small , inferior  kind,  not  equal  to  the 
natives  of  the  United  States,  and  it  is  not  believed  that  any 
have  ever  been  taken  to  America and  the  editors  of  the 
u Poultry  Book,”  lately  published  in  London,  quote  from  a let- 
ter they  received  from  Mr.  Robert  Fortune,  who  has  passed 
many  years  in  various  parts  of  China,  as  follows:  “I  firmly 
believe  that  what  are  called  ‘ Cochin  Chinas’  and  ‘ Shanghais’ 
are  one  and  the  same. 

Whether  this  testimony  should  be  considered  conclusive  or 
not  we  leave  the  reader  to  judge,  and  believing  none  of  the  un- 
couth, awkward,  and  coarse-grained  Asiatic  fowls  desirable,  we 
herewith  dismiss  them. 

9.  The  Bantam  Fowl. — The  Bantam  is  the  smallest  specimen 
of  fowl,  and  may  with  propriety  be  called  the  Tom  Thumb  of 
the  gallinaceous  tribe,  and  stands  comparatively,  in  size,  to  the 
Malay  and  Cochin  fowl  as  that  of  the  noble  and  stately  Du.* 

G* 


130  Domestic  Animals. 

ham  to  the  diminutive  Alderney  cow.  Though  extremely 
small  in  size,  the  Bantam  cock  is  elegantly  formed,  and  remark- 

Fig.  37. 


White  Bantam  Cook  and  Hen. 

able  for  vis  grotesque  figure,  his  courteous  and  passionate 
temper,  hm  amusing  pompousness  of  manner,  his  overweening 
assumption  and  arrogance ; and  his  propensity  to  make  fight, 
and  force  every  rival  to  “turn  tail,”  has  caused  him  many  diffi- 
culties. 

The  Bantam  must  he  considered  more  as  an  object  of  curios- 
Fig.  38. 


Black  Bantam  Cock  and  Hen. 

ity  than  utility,  and  of  course  must  expect  to  be  received  with 
no  peculiar  favor,  in  this  country,  except  as  a u pet.”  They 


Poultry. 


131 


arrive  at  maturity  early,  are  faithful  sitters,  good  mothers,  and 
will  lay  more  eggs,  though  small,  than  any  other  variety.  They 
are  very  domestic,  often  making  their  nests  in  the  kitchen,  de- 
positing their  eggs  in  the  cradle  or  cupboard  of  the  dwelling 
when  permitted.* 

The  most  beautiful  of  the  Bantams  is  the  Seabright,  of  which 
there  are  two  sub-varieties — the  Gold-laced  and  the  Silver- 
laced. 

The  ground  color  of  the  Gold-laced  should  be  a clear,  gold- 
en, yellow-white ; while  in  the  Silver-laced  it  should  be  a pure 
silvery- white.  The  accompanying  cut  will  give  the  reader  a 
good  idea  of  the  form  and  bearing  of  these  remarkable  and 
beautiful  fowls,  as  well  as  of  the  markings  of  their  plumage. 

The  Seabright  Bantam  is  emphatically  the  English  gentle- 
man’s Bantam.  Even  lords  and  duchesses  strive  for  the  mas- 
tery in  breeding  this  beautiful  bird.  This  bird  was  first  bred 


Fig.  39. 


and  introduced  fco  the  notice  of  English  fanciers  by  th£  late  Sir 
John  Seabrip  ^t,  from  whom  they  received  their  name.t 


* Bement 


+ Country  Gentleman. 


132 


Domestic  Animals. 


10.  The  Game  Fowl. — The  Game  fowl  is  hardy,  easily  kept, 
and  extra  good  for  the  table.  The  hens  are  fair  layers,  excel- 
lent sitters,  exemplary  mothers,  and  in  every  way  well  behaved 


Fig.  40. 


Game  Cock  and  Hen. 


fowls.  The  cocks  have  the  reputation  of  being  quarrelsome 
and  tyrannical;  but  those  who  have  studied  their  character 
most  closely  are  of  the  opinion  that,  on  this  ground,  they  have 
been  unjustly  condemned.  They  are  brave  and  powerful,  but 
not  pugnacious  or  vindictive.  Bement  says : “ For  those  who 
do  not  wish  to  give  much  attention  to  fowls,  there  is,  accord- 
ing to  our  opinion,  no  breed  equal  to  the  Game.” 

11.  Mongrel  Fowls. — The  collections  usually  known  under 
the  name  of  Barn-door  fowls  or  Dunghill  fowls  are  merely  rab- 
bles of  mongrels,  in  which  the  results  of  accidental  or  injudi- 
cious crosses  have  become  apparent  in  all  sorts  of  ways.  There 
is  a tendency  among  them  to  revert  back  to  some  one  of  the 
original  breeds,  and  good  fowls  for  all  common  uses  are  often 
found  among  them. 

12.  Choice  of  Breed. — We  have  mentioned  the  leading  char- 
acteristics of  the  different  kinds  of  fowls,  in  order  to  enable  the 
reader  to  decide  which  is  best  adapted  to  his  purpose.  Were 
our  advice  asked  in  reference  to  the  choice  of  a breed,  we  would 
recommend  the  Spanish  where  eggs  are  to  be  made  the  prim 


POULTRY. 


133 


cipal  object,  and  the  Gray  Dorking  where  chickens  are  wanted 
for  the  table  or  for  market.  In  reference  to  merely  ornamental 
poultry,  let  “fancy”  rule. 

13.  Accommodations. —1$ o one  should  attempt  to  keep  fowls 
without  providing  for  them  the  proper  accommodations  to  in- 
sure their  comfort  and  health.  These  need  not  be  expensive. 
A very  simple  house  with  appropriate  accessories  in  the  form 
of  a yard,  nests,  feeding  troughs,  water  basins  or  fountains, 
roosts,  etc.,  can  all  be  very  cheaply  furnished ; or  they  may  be 
more  extensive,  elaborate,  and  costly,  if  the  proprietor’s  wants 
require  and  his  means  permit.  For  plans  and  descriptions  of 
these  structures  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  “The  House,” 
which  forms  another  number  of  this  series  of  manuals.  We 
need  only  say  here  that  they  should  be  such  as  to  secure 
warmth  and  efficient  shelter  from  storms,  without  excluding 
light  or  air,  both  of  which  are  essential  to  the  well-being  of 
fowls  as  well  as  human  beings. 

“Most  farmers,”  Mr.  Bement  truly  says,  “pay  little  or  no  at- 
tention to  their  fowls,  suffering  them  to  roam  and  run  about 
when  and  where  they  please ; to  lay  and  hatch  where  it  suits 
them  best,  and  to  roost  on  trees,  under  sheds,  on  the  wagon, 
cart,  hay-rigging,  etc. — soiling  by  their  droppings  plows,  har- 
rows, or  whatever  may  chance  to  be  within  reach.  This  treat- 
ment is  no  less  unprofitable  than  inhuman.  Ho  wonder  such 
farmers  get  no  eggs  during  the  winter,  and  generally  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  poultry  keeping  does  not  ‘pay.’” 

Whatever  may  be  the  form  or  size  of  your  poultry -house,  it 
should  be  so  constructed  as  to  secure  as  equable  a tempera- 
ture as  possible.  This  end  is  best  attained  by  having  the 
walls  and  roof  lined,  leaving  an  open  space  of  from  four  to  six 
inches  between  the  outer  and  inner  walls,  which  may  be  filled 
in  with  chaff,  saw-dust,  or  dry  tan.  This  will  make  it  warm 
in  winter  and  cool  in  summer.  In  addition  to  the  inclosed  por- 
tion, the  house  should  have  a broad  piazza  or  shed  attached, 
to  which  the  fowls  may  retire  for  shelter  in  stormy  weather. 

Hens  always  seek  to  avoid  observation  when  laying,  and  it  is 


134 


Domestic  Animals. 


well  to  gratify  this  natural  feeling  in  the  construction  of  their 
nests.  A screen  of  lattice- work  in  front  of  the  boxes,  or  a few 
evergreen  houghs  properly  placed,  will  secure  the  required 
seclusion  without  preventing  the  circulating  of  the  air. 

In  reference  to  the  poultry-yard  Mr.  Bement  says  : 

“ Where  it  is  intended  to  keep  a large  number  of  fowls,  let 
the  yard  he  of  ample  dimensions,  which  of  course  must  he  reg- 
ulated by  the  number  intended  to  be  kept.  Those  contracted 
seven-by-nine  pens  which  meet  our  eyes  throughout  the  country 
are  not  calculated  to  answer  the  purpose  for  which  they  were 
intended.  Half  an  acre,  at  least,  for  every  hundred  fowls  (and 
more  than  that  number  should  never  be  kept  in  one  flock),  is 
little  space  enough  for  them  to  roam  in  ; and  in  order  to  unite 
all  the  advantages  desirable  in  a poultry-yard,  it  is  indispensa- 
ble that  it  neither  be  too  cold  during  winter  nor  too  hot  during 
summer ; and  it  must  be  rendered  so  attractive  to  the  hens  as 
to  prevent  their  laying  in  any  chance  place  away  from  it.  To 
shield  them  from  the  chilling  blasts  of  winter  and  the  scorch- 
ing rays  of  the  sun  in  summer,  we  would  recommend  planting 
evergreens  on  the  borders  of  the  yard,  and  shade  trees  in  the 
center.  This,  with  a good  covering  of  grass,  would  leave  little 
to  be  desired  on  that  part.  And  if  the  fowls  can  have  access  to 
a grass  field  occasionally,  and  the  soil  dry , then,  so  far  as  the 
ground  and  situation  are  concerned,  nothing  to  be  wished  for 
remains. 

u A picket  fence,  from  six  to  seven  feet  high,  will  he  suffi- 
cient to  prevent  the  fowls  from  flying  over.” 

14.  Feeding. — The  fowl  is  as  omnivorous  as  a pig  or  a man, 
and  perhaps  a little  more  so  ; nevertheless  grain  is  their  staple. 
Of  this  they  ought  to  have  a variety,  as  they  do  not  thrive  so 
well  when  fed  constantly  with  one  kind.  Corn,  wheat,  barley, 
oats,  and  buckwheat  make  good  feed  for  them.  It  is  better  to 
nave  all  kinds  of  grain,  intended  for  feeding  fowls,  and  espe- 
cially corn,  coarsely  ground  or  cracked.  It  will  be  found  that 
they  require  a smaller  quantity  in  this  state.  It  should  be 
scalded,  or  at  least  mixed  to  the  consistency  of  a stiff  battet 


Poultry. 


135 


with  water,  before  feeding  it  to  them.  Vegetables,  such  as 
potatoes,  carrots,  parsneps,  beets,  etc.,  boiled  and  mashed,  are 
acceptable  and  wholesome.  Lettuce,  cabbage,  Scotch  kale,  etc., 
chopped  up  fine,  are  excellent  for  all  kinds  of  poultry  in  the 
winter.  A few  chopped  onions  may  occasionally  be  added ; 
and  also  a little  flesh-meat,  either  raw  or  cooked,  cut  into  small 
pieces. 

The  editor  of  the  Country  Gentleman  thinks  that  it  is  better 
to  feed  poultry  in  winter  from  three  to  four  times  daily,  than 
twice,  which  is  the  ordinary  custom.  By  frequent  feeding,  the 
birds  eat  but  a little  at  a time,  and  never  injure  themselves ; 
but  when  fed  but  once  or  twice  daily,  there  is  danger  of  theii 
overeating,  which  frequently  produces  fatal  results.  Our  rule 
As,  to  so  regulate  the  quantity  given  at  each  time,  that  each 
fowl  shall  have  all  it  wishes,  and  have  nothing  left.  Our  ex- 
perience confirms  what  many  have  said,  that  regular  and  fre- 
quent feeding  is  better  for  the  health  of  the  fowl,  at  any  season 
of  the  year,  than  it  is  to  fill  a vessel  with  grain  and  allow  them 
access  to  it  at  all  times.  We  also  think  that  poultry  will  eat 
less  with  frequent  feeding  than  by  twice  feeding  daily. 

Lime  is  necessary  for  the  formation  of  egg-shells,  and  should 
always  be  accessible.  The  best  form  is  that  of  calcined  oyster 
shells,  pounded  in  small  fragments.  A box  of  sand  and  gravel, 
and  another  of  ashes,  should  be  added. 

Pure  water  is  another  essential  that  can  not  be  too  strenuously 
insisted  upon,  impure  water  being  a grand  source  of  the  dis- 
eases of  poultry. 

Cleanliness  must  be  strictly  attended  to  in  all  your  arrange- 
ments for  fowls ; and  the  inside  of  the  poultry-house  should  be 
whitewashed  twice,  at  least,  during  the  year,  as  a preventive 
against  vermin. 

15.  Incubation , and  Rearing  Chickens. — For  sitting,  choose 
good-sized  hens.  Those  with  short  legs,  broad  body,  and  large 
wings  are  best  adapted  to  the  duty.  It  is  also  generally  re- 
marked that  the  worst  layers  are  the  best  sitters.  All  the 
eggs  for  a brood,  which  should  not  exceed  thirteen,  should  be 


136 


Domestic  Animals. 


bo  nearly  as  possible  of  the  same  age.  None  of  them  should 
be  more  than  ten  days  old ; and  the  reason  why  they  should 
be  of  about  the  same  date  is,  that  they  may  be  hatched  simul- 
taneously. Select  eggs  of  average  size  and  ordinary  shape. 
Give  the  hen  a quiet  place  to  sit,  and  take  care  that  she  be  not 
disturbed.  In  twenty-one  days  (sometimes  a day  or  two  earlier 
in  warm  weather)  a good  sitter  will  bring  out  the  chicks.  The 
first  day  after  hatching  they  do  not  want  food  and  should  be 
left  in  the  nest.  The  next  day  they  may  be  put  into  a good 
coop  in  a dry,  sheltered  situation,  and  fed  with  coarse  corn- 
meal  mixed  up  with  water,  hard-boiled  eggs  chopped  fine,  or 
fresh,  curd.  Feed  a little  at  a time  and  often,  and  beware  of 
overfeeding.  When  a little  older,  cracked  corn,  millet,  wheat, 
barley,  etc.,  may  be  fed  to  them.  Have  plenty  of  pure  water 
in  a shallow  dish  (so  that  they  may  drink  without  getting  into 
it  and  wetting  their  feathers)  always  before  them.  After  five 
or  six  days  they  may  be  allowed  to  range  at  will  outside  of  the 
coop,  but  should  not  be  allowed  to  come  out  while  the  dew  is 
on  the  ground.  When  two  or  three  weeks  old,  or,  indeed, 
with  the  hardier  breeds  much  earlier,  the  hen  may  be  permit- 
ted to  lead  them  out.  The  most  important  caution  now  is  to 
guard  them  well  against  sudden  unfavorable  changes  of  tem- 
perature, and  especially  against  cold  rain-storms. 

16.  The  Poultry  Pentalogue. — Somebody  in  England  has 
written  a little  work  which  he  calls  the  “ Poultry  Pentalogue,” 
in  which  the  whole  art  of  fowl-breeding  is  summed  up  in  five 
grand  rules : 

1.  Pure  breed ; 

2.  A constant  infusion  of  fresh  blood,  and  the  careful  avoid- 
ince  of  in-and-in  breeding ; 

3.  A varied  diet ; 

4.  Equable  temperature  ; and — 

5.  Strict  cleanliness. 

Good  rules  and  easily  remembered.  We  commend  them  to 
our  readers,  who  may  profitably  apply  them  to  other  stock 
besides  fowls. 


Poultry. 


137 


II.— THE  GUINEA  FOWL. 

“There  is  no  doubt,”  Wingfield  says,  “from  the  description 
given  by  Columella  and  Yarro,  that  the  Guinea  fowl  was 
reared  on  the  fa’ ms  of  the  Romans,  and  that  it  was  first  made 
known  to  them  during  their  w^ars  in  Africa.”  They  have 
hardly  found  the  favor  among  poultry  keepers  that  their  merits 
would  warrant.  They  are  prolific  layers  of  excellent  eggs,  and 
as  table  birds  are  by  no  means  to  be  despised.  They  are 
shy,  and  love  to  make  their  nests  in  dark,  obscure  places,  far 


from  home ; for  which  reason  their  eggs  are  generally  placed 
under  a common  hen  to  be  hatched  and  fostered.  They  give 
no  notice  of  laying  or  sitting. 

A brood  of  Guinea  fowls  is  an  excellent  guard.  They  love 
roosting  in  the  trees ; and  at  night,  if  any  footstep  disturb  them, 
their  loud  cries  are  sure  to  give  notice  to  the  farmer  that  a 
trespass  is  committing. 

The  Guinea  fowl  is  delicate  eating,  and  is  in  fine  season  about 


138 


Domestic  Animals. 


Lent.  The  young  chickens  must  he  treated  in  the  same  man- 
ner and  with  the  same  food  as  young  turkeys,  and  they  must 
be  kept  warm  and  dry.  In  fatting,  they  should  be  shut  up  in 
a house  for  a fortnight,  and  fed  four  or  five  times  a day  with 
sweet  barley-meal,  moistened  with  milk  and  good  lard.  They 
pine  if  confined  any  length  of  time. 

The  great  drawbacks  to  the  rearing  of  Guinea  fowls  are  the 
vigilance  required  to  watch  for  their  nest,  and  the  harsh  scream- 
ing of  their  cry. 

III.— THE  DOMESTIC  TURKEY. 

The  domestic  turkey  is  not  so  far  removed  from  the  wild 
state  as  the  domestic  fowl.  There  is  no  dispute  about  his  ori- 
gin, the  wild  turkey  not  being  yet  extinct,  and  not  differing  so 
widely  from  the  tenants  of  our  barn-yards  as  to  give  room  for 
doubt  on  that  point.  In  fact,  as  it  is  stated  in  the  “American 
Poulterer’s  Companion,”  if  kept  in  the  neighborhood  of  large 
forests  they  will  often  stroll  thither,  without  any  design  to 
return,  such  is  the  natural  wildness  of  their  species. 

¥e  have  three  varieties  of  the  domestic  turkey  in  this 
country — the  Black,  the  Buff-colored,  and  the  White.  The 
Black  is  generally  preferred,  it  being  the  most  hardy.  The 
Buff-colored  is  placed  next  in  the  order  of  merit.  The  White 
variety  is  very  beautiful,  but  is  smaller  and  less  hardy. 

Turkeys  are  generally  considered  very  difficult  to  rear ; and 
it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  considerable  care,  patience,  and  skill 
are  required  to  insuie  uniform  success.  Mr.  Bement  says: 
“ If  attempts  to  rear  turkeys  have  not  been  crowned  with  suc- 
cess, it  is  entirely  owing  to  the  unskillfulness  and  inexperience 
of  those  to  whom  they  have  been  intrusted ; and  so  long  as  one 
persists  in  thwarting  the  females  when  sitting ; in  opening  the 
shells  of  the  eggs  in  order  to  help  the  passage  of  the  tardy 
chicks ; in  pressing  them,  so  soon  as  they  are  born,  to  eat 
against  their  will ; and  in  leaving  them  exposed  to  intense  heat, 
or  to  cold  and  dampness,  so  long  will  their  death,  in  the  course 
of  a month,  be  the  undoubted  consequence.  It  is  less  trouble 


Poultry. 


139 


to  say  the  breed  is  difficult  to  rear,  than  to  acknowledge  at  once 
that  negligence,  unskillfulness,  and  barbarity  are  the  causes.” 

The  principal  requisites  for  the  successful  rearing  of  turkeys, 
according  to  the  experienced  author  of  the  “Poulterer’s  Com- 
panion,” are : 

1.  Good  stock  to  breed  from,  both  male  and  female.  Both 
should  be  large  and  fully  grown.  They  ought  to  be  at  least 
two  years  old. 

2.  Fresh  blood,  secured  by  changing  the  cock  every  year. 

3.  Good  keeping  through  the  winter. 

4.  No  unnecessary  interference  with  the  process  of  incuba- 
tion, which  lasts  four  weeks. 

5.  Shelter,  protection,  and  careful  feeding  of  the  chicks  for  a 
few  weeks,  after  which  the  mother  may  he  liberated  from  the 
coop  to  lead  them  out. 

Curd  chopped  fine,  crumbs  of  bread  softened  in  water  or 
milk,  are  good  for  their  first  food ; but  they  will  soon  eat  any- 
thing that  is  fit  for  the  parent  turkey,  except  unbroken  grain. 

Early  in  the  fall  they  should  be  fed  night  and  morning  with 
dry  corn ; and  when  the  weather  becomes  colder  they  may 
profitably  be  supplied  at  frequent  intervals  with  boiled  potatoes, 
mashed  with  corn  meal  and  skimmed  milk,  given  to  them 
warm.  On  this  diet  they  will  grow  and  fatten  rapidly. 

The  turkey  is  an  out-door  bird  and  requires,  at  most,  only  an 
open  shed  for  shelter  during  severe  storms,  and  even  this  will 
seldom  be  occupied  if  a good  tree  be  at  hand.  They  have  not 
yet  acquired  all  the  effeminate  artificial  habits  of  the  domestic 
fowl. 

The  critical  periods  with  the  turkey  are  about  the  third  day 
after  they  are  hatched,  and  when  they  have  thrown  out  the 
“red  head,”  as  it  is  called,  which  they  do  when  about  six  weeks 
old.  To  carry  them  safely  through  the  first,  avoid  overfeeding, 
and  secure  them  against  unfavorable  changes  of  temperature. 
In  the  latter  case,  give  them  a plenty  of  food,  and  render  it  as 
nutritious  as  possible  by  adding  boiled  eggs,  wheaten  grits, 
bruised  hemp  seed,  or  bruised  beans. 


140 


Domestic  Animals 


Cobbett  says : “ As  to  fattening  turkeys,  the  best  way  is  to 
never  let  them  get  poor.  Barley  meal  mixed  with  skimmed 
milk  and  given  them  fresh  will  make  them  fat  in  a short  time. 
Boiled  potatoes  mixed  with  corn  meal  will  furnish  a change  of 
sweet  food  which  they  relish  much,  and  of  which  they  may 
eat  as  much  as  they  can.” 

IV.—1 THE  DOMESTIC  GOOSE. 

The  domestic  goose  has  acknowledged  the  sway  of  man  for 
ages — perhaps  since  the  days  of  Noah.  Homer  mentions  them, 
where  Penelope,  relating  her  dream,  says : “I  have  twenty 
geese  at  home,  that  eat  wheat  out  of  water,  and  I am  delighted 
to  look  at  them.”  Their  cackling,  it  will  be  remembered,  saved 
Fig  42. 


Embden  or  Bremen  Geebe. 


Poultry. 


141 


Rome  from  the  Gauls,  b.o.  38 8.  Their  wild  original  is  unknown, 
the  wild  geese  of  the  present  day  being  of  a different  species. 

Of  the  common  domestic  goose  there  is  really  but  one  vari- 
ety divided  into  several  sub-varieties,  marked  by  more  or  less 
permanent  distinctive  characteristics — of  these  the  Toulouse 
goose  and  the  Bremen  goose  are  probably  the  best.  The  for- 
mer is  gray  and  the  latter  white.  The  White  China  goose  prob- 
ably belongs  to  a distinct  species.  It  is  a beautiful  bird,  but 
comes  properly  under  the  head  of  ornamental  poultry,  of  which 
we  have  little  to  say.  It  can  be  kept  with  advantage  only  in 
a warm  climate. 

Where  there  are  facilities  for  keeping  them,  geese  are  consid- 
ered the  most  profitable  of  all  our  domestic  birds.  The  chief 
requisites  for  goose  keeping  are  a pond  or  pool  of  water  and  a 
pasture  for  grazing. 

The  domestic  gander  is  polygamous,  but  should  not,  Mormon- 
like, be  allowed  an  unlimited  number  of  wives.  Three  is  suf- 
ficient, and  some  recommend  to  allow  only  two  geese  to  each 
gander.  Comfortable  and  well-ventilated  apartments  should 
be  provided  for  geese,  so  constructed  as  to  secure  them  against 
rats,  weasels,  skunks,  etc.  A separate  room  for  the  sitting 
goose  is  desirable.  Her  period  of  incubation  is  about  thirty 
days.  Thirteen  eggs  are  the  usual  number  given  to  the  goose. 
She  always  covers  them  when  absent  from  the  nest. 

“ On  the  first  day  after  the  goslings  are  hatched,”  Mr.  Bement 
says,  “they  may  be  let  out,  if  the  weather  be  warm,  care  being 
taken  not  to  let  them  be  exposed  to  the  unshaded  heat  of  the 
sun,  which  might  kill  them.  The  food  given  them  is  prepared 
with  some  barley  or  Indian  meal  coarsely  ground,  bran,  and 
raspings  of  bread,  which  are  still  better  if  soaked  and  boiled  in 
milk,  or  lettuce  leaves  and  crusts  of  bread  boiled  in  milk.  On 
the  second  day  a fresh-cut  turf  is  placed  before  them,  and  its 
fine  blades  of  grass  or  clover  are  the  first  objects  which  seem 
to  tempt  their  appetites.  A little  boiled  hominy  and  rice,  with 
bread  crumbs,  form  their  food  for  the  first  few  days,  fresh 
water  in  a shallow  vessel,  which  they  can  dabble  in  and  out 


142 


Domestic  Animals. 


without  difficulty,  being  duly  provided.  Afterward  advantage 
must  be  taken  of  a fine  warm  sun  to  turn  them  out  on  grasa 
for  a few  hours ; but  if  cold  and  damp,  they  should  remain  in 
their  house,  in  which  every  attention  should  be  paid  to  cleanli- 
ness by  a constant  supply  of  clean  straw.  After  two  weeks 
we  cease  these  special  precautions  against  exposure  to  the 
weather,  and  find  them  perfectly  able  to  shift  for  themselves, 
in  company  with  their  mothers  and  the  others  of  their  race. 
For  some  weeks,  however,  extra  supplies  of  food,  such  as  bran 
or  corn  meal  mixed  with  boiled  or  steamed  vegetables,  may  be 
given  them  twice  a day,  morning  and  evening,  continuing  to 
give  them  this  food  till  the  wings  begin  to  cross  on  the  back, 
and  after  this,  green  food,  which  may  be  mixed  with  it,  such 
as  lettuce,  cabbage,  beet  leaves,  and  such  like.  The  pond  is 
strictly  forbidden  them  under  all  circumstances  for  the  first  two' 
weeks,  and  in  severer  weather  for  a longer  period.  Exposure 
to  heavy  rain  out  of  doors,  and  a damp  floor  in  the  house  where 
they  are  placed  at  night,  are  the  main  hazards  to  be  avoided.” 
One  of  the  greatest  sources  of  profit  in  goose  keeping  is  the 
sale  of  the  feathers ; but  plucking  them  from  the  living  geese 
is  a practice  so  full  of  cruelty  that  we  can  not  conscientiously 
give  any  directions  for  the  process.  A writer  in  one  of  the 
magazines  recommends  shearing  instead  of  plucking.  He 
says:  “Feathers  are  but  of  a year’s  growth,  and  in  the  moult- 
ing season  they  spontaneously  fall  off,  and  are  supplied  by  a 
fresh  fleece.  When,  therefore,  the  geese  are  in  full  feather,  let 
the  plumage  be  removed,  very  close  to  the  skin,  by  sharp  scis- 
sors, clipping  them  off  as  sheep  are  shorn ; they  will  be  renew- 
ed at  moulting  in  the  usual  course  of  nature.  The  produce 
would  not  be  much  reduced  in  quantity,  while  the  quality 
would  be  greatly  improved,  and  an  indemnification  be  experi- 
enced in  the  consciousness  of  not  having  tortured  the  poor  bird, 
and  in  the  uninjured  health  of  the  fowl,  and  the  benefit  obtain- 
ed in  the  succeeding  crop.  After  this  operation  shall  have 
been  performed,  the  down  from  the  breast  may  be  removed 
by  the  same  means.” 


Poultry. 


143 


V.— THE  DOMESTIC  DUCK. 

The  origin  of  the  tame  duck  is  not  a well  settled  point, 
Dixon  supposes  it  to  have  been  imported  from  India  and  China 
in  or  about  the  year  1493. 

Of  the  numerous  varieties  known  to  the  poulterer,  Mr. 
Giles,  of  Woodstock,  Conn.,  whom  we  have  already  had  occa- 
sion to  quote,  recommends,  for  those  who  desire  to  keep  ducks 
for  use  and  not  for  ornament  merely,  the  Rouen,  the  Java,  and 
the  Aylesbury. 

The  Rouen  duck,  originally  from  Rouen,  France,  is  of  a 
dark-brown  plumage ; legs  and  feet  a dark  dusky  red ; bill  at 
the  base  black,  tapering  down  toward  the  point  a dark  green, 
sometimes  streaked  with  yellow ; long  in  the  body,  with  a 
small  neck.  The  drakes  are  invariably  the  color  of  the  wild 
Mallard  drake,  having  a white  ring  around  the  neck ; legs  and 
feet  a bright  red ; bill  a bright  yellow  ; flesh  darker  and  higher 
flavored  than  the  common  duck.  Very  prolific,  hardy,  and 
easy  to  raise;  will  weigh  at  full  maturity  from  eighteen  to 
twenty  pounds  a pair. 

The  Java  duck,  originally  from  Java.  Plumage  a glossy 
black ; neck  long ; round  body  ; legs  and  feet  black,  and  black 
bill.  Drakes  are  black,  head  and  neck  bordering  on  a dark 
green ; yellow  bill ; with  bright  red  legs  and  feet.  The  Java 
ducks  will  attain  to  nearly  the  same  weight  as  the  Rouens — 
flesh  similar. 

The  Aylesbury  duck,  originally  from  the  town  of  Aylesbury, 
England.  Plumage  a beautiful  white,  with  white  bill;  legs 
and  feet  a bright  pink,  ornamental  in  appearance;  easy  to 
propagate;  producing  white  downy  feathers,  white  skin,  and 
delicate,  savory  flesh;  will  weigh  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  pounds 
the  pair.  Sit  the  eggs  under  hens,  and  have  them  hatch  out- 
early.  With  care  you  can  have  large  ducks. 

The  Wild  Mallard  duck  is  often  domesticated.  It  is  a very 
beautiful  bird  and  becomes  quite  tame,  rearing  broods  like  the 
common  duck;  but  no  permanent  tame  race  has  yet  been  de- 
rived from  them. 


144: 


Domestic  Animals. 


The  Musk  or  Brazilian  duck  is  from  the  tropical  regions  ot 
South  America.  It  is  a singular  bird  in  appearance  and  in 
habits,  but  we  see  little  to  recommend  it,  either  for  use  or  orna- 
ment. 

The  Wood  duck,  the  most  beautiful  of  its  genus,  so  common 
in  all  parts  of  the  North  American  continent,  is  also  easily 
domesticated.  It  also  will  breed  in  its  domesticated  state. 

Ducks  are  easily  kept  where  there  is  access  to  a pond,  pool, 
stream,  or  swamp.  They  will  eat  almost  anything,  animal  of 
vegetable.  The  refuse  of  the  kitchen  garden  is  always  accept- 
able to  them,  and  where  grass  is  not  attainable,  something  of 
this  kind  must  be  regularly  supplied. 

iC  The  duck-house,”  Bement  says,  “ should,  if  possible,  be  of 
brick,  and  paved  with  the  same  material,  with  considerable  in 
clinaHon,  so  that  the  wet,  when  the  floor  is  sluiced  down,  may 
at  once  pass  off.  Wood  is  seldom  secure  against  rats,  and  does 
not  so  well  suit  the  cleaning  process  of  water  and  the  lime- 
brush, and  few  places  require  their  application  more  frequently. 
Do  not  crowd  your  birds,  and  always  arrange  for  good  venti- 
lation. When  the  flock  is  large,  separate  the  young  ones,  that 
they  may  thus  have  the  advantage  of  better  food,  and  that  no 
risk  may  be  incurred  of  finding  the  eggs  of  the  older  ones  trod- 
den under  foot  and  broken  at  your  morning  visit.  On  this  ac- 
count the  laying  ducks  should  always  have  plenty  of  room,  and 
be  kept  by  themselves.  Ducks,  for  these  reasons,  as  well  as 
for  the  sake  of  cleanliness,  should  never  share  the  habitation  of 
fowls,  and  from  geese  they  are  liable  to  persecution.  Yet, 
where  fowls  are  kept,  a little  contrivance  will  suffice  to  make 
their  berth,  even  in  a fowl-house,  tolerably  comfortable.  In 
winter,  a thin  bedding  of  straw  or  rushes  should  be  placed  on 
the  floor,  and  frequently  changed.” 

The  duck  is  a prolific  layer,  and  her  eggs  are  very  rich  and 
highly  flavored,  and  are  much  relished  by  some  persons.  One 
duck’s  egg  is  considered  of  equal  culinary  value  to  two  fowl’s 
eggs. 

According  to  Mr.  Parmentier,  one  drake  is  sufficient  for 


Musk  on  Brazilian  Ducks. 


L46  Domestic  Animals. 

eight  or  ten  ducks,  but  others  limit  the  number  to  from  fom 
to  six. 

Ducks  are  not  so  easily  persuaded  to  lay  in  nests  prepared 
for  them,  hut  prefer  to  choose  a place  out-of-doors  to  deposit 
their  eggs.  If  the  nest  selected  be  tolerably  secure,  it  is  better 
to  allow  them  to  sit  there  than  to  attempt  their  removal. 
Thirteen  eggs  are  a full  allowance  for  a duck,  and  these  should 
be  as  fresh  as  possible.  The  period  of  incubation  varies  con- 
siderably, but  twenty -eight  days  is  perhaps  about  the  average 
time.  The  treatment  of  the  young  brood  should  be  similar  to 
that  recommended  for  goslings.  Boiled  potatoes  and  hominy, 
or  coarse  corn  meal,  make  excellent  food  for  them.  It  is  better 
to  give  them  no  uncooked  food  for  several  weeks  after  they  are 
hatched. 

To  fatten  ducks  you  must  give  them  a plenty  of  good  grain 
(corn  and  oats  are  to  be  preferred),  and  not  allow  them  access 
to  too  much  garbage.  All  fish  and  flesh,  and  especially  putrid 
animal  matter,  of  which  they  are  fond,  must  be  excluded  from 
their  diet,  or  the  flavor  of  their  flesh  will  be  destroyed. 

YI. — PREPARATION  OF  POULTRY  FOR  MARKET. 

Messrs.  Drew  & French,  extensive  dealers  in  farm  and 
market-garden  produce,  fruits,  eggs,  poultry,  etc.,  85  Barclay 
Street,  blew  York,  in  answer  to  various  inquiries  addressed  to 
them,  carefully  prepared  and  published,  some  time  ago,  the  fol- 
lowing directions,  which  should  be  as  carefully  followed  by  all 
who  send  poultry  to  the  city  markets  and  wish  to  get  the 
highest  price  for  it : 

“ First — Give  no  food  for  twenty-four  hours  previous  to 
killing.  Food  in  the  crop  is  liable  to  sour,  and  always  injures 
the  sale.  Purchasers  object  to  paying  for  undigested  food. 

“ Second — ‘Sticking’  in  the  neck  with  a penknife  is  the  best 
mode  of  killing.  If  the  head  is  cut  off,  the  skin  recedes,  and 
the  neck  bone  looks  repulsive. 

“ Third — Most  of  the  poultry  coming  to  this  market  is  badly 
scalded’  or  ‘ wet  picked.’  ‘ Dry  picked’  is  preferred,  and  sella 


Poultry. 


147 


a little  higher,  other  things  being  equal.  Great  care  should 
be  taken  in  picking  to  remove  all  the  pin-feathers,  and  to  avoid 
tearing  the  skin,  particularly  upon  the  legs,  where  it  is  most 
likely  to  be  broken.  If  properly  scalded,  it  looks  best. 

“ Fourth — The  intestines  should  not  be  drawn.  After  pick- 
ing, the  head  may  be  taken  off,  and  the  skin  drawn  over  the 
neck  bone  and  tied.  This  is  best,  though  much  comes  with 
heads  on. 

“ Fifth — Next  in  order,  it  should  be  ‘plumped,’  by  being 
dipped  about  two  seconds  into  water  nearly  or  quite  boiling 
hot,  and  then  at  once  into  cold  water  about  the  same  length  of 
time.  Some  think  the  hot  plunge  sufficient  without  the  cold. 
It  should  be  entirely  cold  but  not  frozen,  before  being  packed. 
If  it  reaches  market  sound  without  freezing,  it  will  sell  all 
the  better. 

“ Sixth — For  packing,  if  practicable,  use  clean  hand-threshed 
rye  straw.  If  this  can  not  be  had,  wheat  or  oat  straw  will  an- 
swer, if  clean  and  free  from  dust.  Place  a layer  of  straw  at 
the  bottom  of  the  box,  then  alternate  layers  of  poultry  and 
straw — taking  care  to  stow  snugly,  backs  upward,  filling  vacan- 
cies with  straw,  and  filling  the  package  so  that  the  cover  will 
draw  down  snugly  upon  the  contents.  Boxes  holding  not  over 
300  lbs.  are  the  best  packages. 

“ Seventh — Number  the  packages;  mark  the  contents  of 
each  on  the  cover ; place  the  invoice  of  the  lot  in  one  package, 
marked  ‘bill,’  sending  duplicate  by  mail;  direct  plainly  to  the 
consignee,  placing  the  name  of  the  consigner  in  one  corner.” 


148 


Domestic  Animals 


IX. 

BEE-KEEPING. 

Oh,  Nature  kind  ! Oh,  laborer  wise  ! 

That  roam’st  along  the  summer  ray, 

Gleau’st  ev’ry  bliss  thy  life  supplies. 

And  meet’st  prepar’d  thy  wintry  day : 

Go— envied,  go— with  crowded  gates, 

The  hive  thy  rich  return  awaits  ; 

Bear  home  thy  store  in  triumph  gay, 

And  shame  each  idler  on  thy  way. — Anon. 

I. — THE  WONDERS  OF  THE  BEE-HIVE. 

HE  accounts  given,  by  naturalists  and  writers  on 
bee-keeping,  of  the  instincts  and  habits  of  the 
bee  seem  truly  fabulous ; and  yet  they  are  all 
founded  on  observation,  and  there  seems  to  be 
no  reason  for  calling  them  in  question. 

A hive  of  bees,  we  are  told,  consists  of  three  kinds — females, 
males,  and  workers.  The  females  are  called  queens,  and  only 

Fig.  44.  Fig.  45. 


The  Queen  Bee.  The  Deone. 

one  is  permitted  to  live  in  the  same  hive ; but  one  is  essential 
to  its  establishment  and  maintenance.  The  males  are  called 
drones,  and  may  exist  in  hundreds,  or  even  thousands,  in  a 


Bee-Keeping. 


149 


hive.  The  workers,  or  neuters,  are  the  most  numerous,  and 
perform  all  the  labor,  collecting  the  honey,  secreting  the  wax, 
and  building  the  cells.  The  females 
and  workers  have  stings  at  the  end 
of  the  abdomen,  but  the  drones  have 
none.  The  queen  lives  in  the  inte- 
rior of  the  hive,  and  seldom  leaves 
it  except  to  lead  forth  a swarm.  If 
she  be  removed  from  the  hive,  the 
whole  swarm  will  follow  her.  The 
queen  is  not  only  the  governor,  but  also  the  mother  of  the  com- 
munity, she  being  the  only  breeder  out  of  20,000  or  30,000 
bees,  on  which  account  she  is  loved,  respected,  and  obeyed  with 
all  the  external  marks  of  devotion  which  human  beings  could 
give  to  a beloved  monarch. 

The  queen  deposits  her  eggs  in  cells  previously  prepared  by 
the  workers  to  receive  them.  The  eggs  producing  workers  are 
deposited  in  six-sided  horizontal  cells ; the  cells  of  the  drones 
are  somewhat  irregular ; those  of  the  queens  are  larger  than 
the  others,  circular,  and  hang  perpendicularly.  The  eggs  pro- 
ducing workers  are  laid  first,  the  queen  laying  about  two  hun- 
dred eggs  daily.  The  eggs  of  the  drones  afterward  laid  are  less 
numerous  than  those  of  the  workers,  in  the  proportion  of  about 
one  to  thirty.  Eggs  for  queens  are  deposited  in  their  proper  cells, 
Fig.  47.  one  in  each,  at  intervals  of  one  or  two  days. 

The  eggs  and  larvge  of  the  royal  family  do  not 
differ  in  appearance  from  those  of  the  work- 
ers, but  the  young  are  more  carefully  nurs- 
ed, and  fed  with  a more  stimulating  kind  of 
food  called  “royal  jelly,”  which  causes  them 
to  grow  so  rapidly  that  in  five  days  the  larva 
is  prepared  to  spin  its  web,  and  on  the  six- 
teenth day  becomes  a perfect  queen.  But 
as  only  one  queen  can  reign  in  the  hive, 
A Royal  Cell.  the  young  ones  are  kept  close  prisoners;  and 
carefully  guarded  against  the  attacks  of  the  queen  mother 


Fig.  46. 


150 


Domestic  Animals. 


bo  long  as  there  is  any  prospect  of  her  leading  out  a swarm. 
When  the  old  queen  departs  with  a swarm,  a young  one  is 
liberated,  who  immediately  seeks  the  destruction  of  her  sisters, 
but  is  prevented  by  the  guards.  If  she  lead  forth  another 
swarm,  a second  queen  is  liberated,  and  so  on  until  further 
swarming  is  considered  impossible,  when  the  reigning  queen  is 
permitted  to  destroy  her  sisters.  In  cases  where  no  new 
swarm  is  to  be  sent  off,  the  queen  mother  is  permitted  to 
assume  the  office  of  destroyer.  If  at  any  time  two  queens 
happen  to  come  out  simultaneously,  it  is  said  that  a mortal 
combat  takes  place  at  once,  and  the  victor  is  acknowledged  tc> 
be  the  rightful  sovereign.  On  the  loss  of  a queen,  the  whole 
swarm  is  thrown  into  the  greatest  confusion,  and  if  there  be 
no  worker  eggs  or  brood  out  of  which  a queen  can  be  made 
by  the  peculiar  process  of  feeding  already  mentioned,  all  laboi 
ceases  and  the  bees  soon  die. 

There  are  three  substances  for  which  the  bees  forage  the 
fields.  First,  a resin,  or  gum,  which  is  on  trees;  next,  the 
pollen,  or  fine  dust,  of  flowers ; and  lastly,  the  saccharine  mat- 
ter that  is  in  the  flowers.  When  the  cells  are  to  be  built,  they 
Wing  home  the  resin,  and  stop  all  the  cracks  or  crevices  in  the 
Fig.  48.  hive,  so  that  neither  the 

rain  nor  any  insect  can 
get  in  to  trouble  them. 
Then  they  set  forth  to 
bring  materials  for  wax, 
to  construct  their  cells. 
The  wax  is  made  from 
pollen.  The  bees  swallow 
it,  and  then  hang  them- 
selves in  festoons  in  the 
hive.  In  the  course  of 
twenty -four  hours  small 
rings  make  their  appear- 
Festoons  op  Bees  Secreting  Wax.  anc0  Qn  tbe  bod^  Then 

the  bee  detaches  itself  from  the  rest  of  the  group,  and,  descend- 


Bee-Keeping. 


151 


Fig.  49. 


In g to  the  bottom  of  the  hive,  removes  the  substance  which 
has  now  become  wax.  Each  bee  fol- 
lows in  its  turn,  and  deposits  its  con 
tribution,  which  is  directly  made  use 
of  by  the  architects  in  building  the 
cells. 

A Wax-Wobkeb.  The  honey-cells  are  all  six-sided,  and 

of  the  most  perfect  regularity.  Were  they  squares,  or  trian- 
gles, or  circles,  they  would  Fig-  50. 

not  fit  as  closely  together, 
consequently  there  would 
be  a waste  of  room. 

“There  is  a substance 
called  bee  bread,  which  is 
necessary  to  the  life  of  the 
bee.  It  is  made  from  pol- 
len, but  is  entirely  unlike 
wax.  In  securing  it,  the 
bee  darts  into  a flower, 
and  covers  its  body  with  the  yellow  dust.  Now  it  must  con- 
trive some  way  to  get  rid  of  it,  and  God  has  made  the  last  joint 
but  one  of  each  leg  like  a brush.  These  brushes  are  passed  all 
over  the  body,  and  the  pollen  is  collected 
in  two  little  heaps.  The  thighs  of  the  last 
pair  of  the  bees’  legs  are  furnished  with 
two  cavities,  and  these  make  nice  little  bas- 
kets to  carry  home  their  treasure.  The 
dust  collected  from  a thousand  flowers  is 
now  kneaded  into  little  balls,  and  when 
these  have  increased  to  the  size  of  a grain 
of  pepper,  the  bee  flies  home,  and  enters 
the  ceil  head  foremost.  The  balls  are  then 
Bee’s  Leo  Magnified,  taken  from  the  baskets,  and,  being  moist- 


Cells. 


Fig.  51. 


ened  with  a little  honey,  become  bee  bread.” 51 


* Student  and  Schoolmate. 


152 


Domestic  Animals. 


One  of  the  greatest  wonders  of  the  bee-hive  is  the  mode  in 
which  it  is  ventilated.  Fresh  air  is  no  less  necessary  to  bees 


Fig.  52. 


than  to  human  beings,  and  as 
no  provision  is  made  for  its  sup- 
ply in  the  construction  of  their 
dwelling,  they  secure  it  in  this 
way : “ They  arrange  them- 
selves in  files  along  the  bottom 
of  the  hive.  Those  outside 
place  their  heads  toward  the 
entrance,  and  those  within  in 
an  opposite  direction.  When 
thus  stationed,  they  flap  their 
wings  so  rapidly  that  we  can 
not  see  that  they  have  any 
wings  at  all.  This  rapid  motion 
drives  a current  of  air  into  the  hive,  to  keep  the  honey  and 
comb  cool.” 


Glass  Hive,  Showing  the  Aeeange- 
ment  of  Comb. 


II.— THE  APIARY  AND  HIVES. 

The  situation  selected  for  an  apiary  or  bee-house  should  he 
well  sheltered  from  strong  winds,  and  should  not  be  near  any 
large  sheet  of  water.  The  hives  should  face  the  south,  the 
east,  or  the  southeast.  They  should  be  placed  in  a right  line ; 
and  it  is  better  to  place  them  on  shelves,  one  above  another, 
than  in  rows  upon  the  ground.  The  distance  between  the 
hives  should  be  not  less  than  two  feet,  and  their  height  from 
the  ground  about  the  same.  Near  the  apiary  should  be  some 
small  trees  and  shrubbery,  on  which  swarms  may  alight;  but 
large  trees  are  objectionable.  The  grass  should  be  frequently 
mowed  around  the  bee-house,  to  prevent  dampness  and  destroy 
the  lurking-places  of  noxious  vermin. 

Much  difference  of  opinion  exists  in  reference  to  the  best 
form  and  construction  for  a bee-hive,  and  many  ingenious  plans 
have  been  offered  by  the  inventive  genius  of  our  country  for 
their  improvement.  Some  of  these  have  peculiar  excellences 


Bee-Keeping. 


153 


and  are  worthy  of  a careful  trial,  but  few  if  any  of  them  are 
without  some  serious  objections ; so  that  practical  bee-keepers 
generally  prefer  hives  of  the  simplest  construction.  One  of  the 
best  hives  is  made  of  pine  boards  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a 
quarter  thick.  The  best  size  is  twelve  inches  square  inside  and 
fourteen  inches  deep.  The  top  should  be  made  of  boards  fifteen 
inches  square.  The  boards  should  be  joined  carefully,  and  it  is 
well  to  apply  a coat  of  paint  to  the  edges  before  putting  them 
together.  Small  notches  should  be  made  at  the  bottom  for  the 
passage  of  the  bees ; and  cross  sticks  put  in  for  the  support  of 
the  comb.  If  the  inside  of  the  hive  be  planed  and  covered  with 
a thin  coating  of  melted  beeswax,  it  will  save  the  bees  much 
labor.  Boxes  for  caps  or  covers  may  be  fitted  to  these  hives. 
These  may  be  about  seven  inches  deep  and  twelve  square. 
They  must  fit  closely  the  tops  of  the  hives,  and  may  be  furnished 
with  glass  jars  or  other  vessels  for  the  reception  of  the  honey. 
Several  holes  should  be  made  in  the  top  of  the  hive  for  the  pas- 
sage of  the  bees. 

In  Poland,  where  finer  honey  is  produced  and  bees  more 
successfully  cultivated  than  anywhere  else,  the  excavated  trunks 
of  trees  are  used  for  hives.  Logs  a foot  or  more  in  diameter 
and  nine  feet  long  are  scooped  or  bored  for  the  length  of  six 
feet  from  one  end,  the  bore  being  from  six  to  eight  inches  in 
diameter.  A longitudinal  slit  is  made  in  this  hollow  cylinder 
nearly  the  whole  length  and  four  inches  wide.  Into  this  slit  is 
fitted  a slip  of  wood  with  notches  on  the  edges  large  enough  to 
admit  a single  bee.  This  slip  is  hung  on  hinges  and  forms  a 
door,  by  the  opening  of  which  the  condition  of  the  swarm  can 
be  seen  and  the  honey  be  taken  out.  The  top  being  covered, 
the  trunk  is  set  upright,  with  the  opening  toward  the  south. 
Sections  of  hollow  trees  are  often  used  in  this  country  for  hives. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  carry  honey  to  market  without  re- 
moving it  from  the  hive  in  which  it  was  made,  and  as  few 
persons  will  purchase  the  contents  of  a large  hive,  one  con- 
structed in  sections  has  a great  advantage  in  that  particular  at 
least. 

1* 


154 


Domestic  Animals. 


According  to  the  views  of  Mr.  Harasti,  a skillful  bee-cultiva- 
tor, as  quoted  in  the  “Farmer’s  Encyclopedia,”  a good  bee-hive 
ought  to  possess  the  following  properties : First,  it  should  be 
capable  of  enlargement  or  contraction  according  to  the  size  of 
the  swarm.  Secondly,  it  should  admit  of  being  opened  with- 
out disturbing  the  bees,  either  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  it 
from  insects,  increasing  or  dividing  the  swarm,  etc.  Thirdly, 
it  should  he  so  constructed  that  the  produce  may  be  removed 
without  injury  to  the  bees.  Fourthly,  it  should  he  internally 
clean,  smooth,  and  free  from  cracks  or  flaws.  All  these  prop- 
erties seem  best  united  in  the  section-hive,  which  is  constituted 
Fig-  53.  of  two,  three,  four,  or  more 

square  boxes  of  similar  size 
as  to  width,  placed  over 
each  other.  Such  hives 
are  cheap,  and  so  simple 
that  almost  any  one  can 
construct  them. 

The  boxes  A,  B,  C,  D 
may  be  made  from  ten  to 
fourteen  inches  square  and 
about  five  inches  in  depth, 
inside  measure.  Every 
bee-keeper  should  have  his 
A Sectional  Hive.  boxes  made  of  the  same 

size,  so  as  to  fit  on  to  each  other.  Every  hive  must  have  a 
common  top-hoard,  a,  which  should  project  over  the  sides  of  the 
hive.  The  top-board  of  each  section  should  have  about  sixteen 
holes  bored  through  at  equal  distances  from  each  other,  and  not 
larger  than  three  fourths  or  smaller  than  four  fifths  of  an  inch. 
Or,  instead  of  such  holes,  chinks  of  proper  size  may  be  cut 
through  to  allow  the  bees  to  pass  up  and  down.  At  the  lower 
part  of  each  box  or  section,  in  front,  there  must  be  an  aperture 
or  little  door,  c,  c,  c , <Z,  just  high  enough  to  let  the  bees  pass, 
and  about  an  inch  and  a half  wide.  The  lowermost  aperture, 
dy  is  to  be  left  open  at  first,  and  when  the  hive  is  filled  the  upper 


Bee-Keeping. 


155 


ones  may  be  successively  opened.  By  placing  over  the  boles  in 
the  top  of  the  upper  section,  glass  globes,  jars,  tumblers,  or 
boxes,  the  bees  will  rise  into  and  fill  them  with  honey.  These 
may  be  removed  at  any  time  after  being  filled.  The  holes  in  the 
tops  of  the  hive  which  do  not  open  into  the  glasses  or  boxes 
should  of  course  be  plugged  up.  These  glass  jars,  etc.,  must 
be  covered  over  with  a box,  so  as  to  keep  them  in  the  dark. 
Every  box  or  section,  on  the  side  opposite  the  little  door, 
should  have  a narrow  piece  of  glass  inserted,  with  a sliding 


diate  space  will  afford  sufficient  light  to  see  them  work.  The 
slides  covering  the  glasses  should  never  be  left  open  longer  than 
is  just  necessary  for  purposes  of  inspection. 


When  one  section  is  removed  from  the  top,  a wire  or  long 
thin  knife  must  be  previously  run  between  this  and  the  one 
immediately  below,  so  as  to  destroy  the  attachments.  Then 
remove  the  upper  section,  placing  the  top  upon  the  one  below, 
which  is  now  the  highest  division  of  the  hive.  Another  section 
is  to  be  placed  beneath,  lifting  up  the  whole  hive  for  the  pur- 
pose. Sometimes  a second  section  has  to  be  put  under  during 
a good  season.  If  the  swarm  is  not  very  large,  three  or  even 
two  boxes  will  be  sufficient  for  its  accommodation.  The  boxes 
or  sections  may  be  secured  upon  each  other  by  buttons,  b , 

or  rabbets,  and  the  joints  closed  with  cement. 

The  plan  of  Mr.  Luda,  of  Connecticut,  by  which  the  bees  are 
made  to  build  their  cells  and  deposit  their  honey  in  the  cham- 
ber of  a dwelling-house  appropriated  for  the  purpose,  in  neat 
little  drawers,  from  which  it  may  be  taken  fresh  by  the  owner, 
without  killing  the  bees,  has  obtained  deserved  celebrity.  The 
hive  has  the  appearance  of,  and  is,  in  part,  a mahogany  bureau 


156 


Domestic  Animals. 


or  sideboard,  with  drawers  above  and  a closet  below,  with 
glass  doors.  This  case  or  bureau  is  designed  to  be  placed  in 
the  chamber  of  a house,  or  any  other  suitable  building,  and 
connected  with  the  open  air  or  outside  of  the  house  by  a tube 
passing  through  the  wall.  The  bees  work  and  deposit  their 
honey  in  drawers.  When  these  or  any  of  them  are  full,  or  it 
is  desired  to  obtain  honey,  one  or  more  of  them  may  be  taken 
out,  the  bees  allowed  to  escape  into  the  other  parts  of  the  hive, 
and  the  honey  taken  away.  The  glass  doors  allow  the  work- 
ing of  the  bees  to  be  observed ; and  it  is  said  that  the  spacious- 
ness, cleanliness,  and  even  the  more  regular  temperature  of 
such  habitations,  render  them  the  more  industrious  and  suc- 
cessful. 

III.— GENERAL  DIRECTIONS. 

1.  S 'warming, — Huish,  in  his  “Treatise  on  Bees,”  says: 
“ The  swarming  of  hees  generally  commences  in  June ; in  some 
seasons  earlier,  and  in  cold  climates  or  seasons  later.  The  first 
swarming  is  so  long  preceded  by  the  appearance  of  drones  and 
hanging  out  of  working  bees,  that  if  the  time  of  their  leaving 
the  hive  is  not  observed  it  must  be  owing  to  want  of  care. 
The  signs  of  the  second  are,  however,  more  equivocal,  the 
most  certain  being  that  of  the  queen,  a day  or  two  before 
swarming,  at  intervals  of  a few  minutes,  giving  out  a sound  a 
good  deal  resembling  that  of  a cricket.  It  frequently  happens 
that  the  swarm  will  leave  the  old  hive  and  return  again  several 
times,  which  is  always  owing  to  the  queen  not  having  accom- 
panied them,  or  from  having  dropped  on  the  ground,  being  too 
young  to  fly  to  a distance.  Gooseberry,  currant,  or  other  low 
bushes,  should  be  planted  at  a short  distance  from  the  hives, 
for  the  bees  to  swarm  upon,  otherwise  they  are  apt  to  fly 
away.” 

When  they  collect  where  they  can  not  be  shaken  off  and  the 
hive  can  not  be  placed  near  them,  they  may  be  brushed  off 
into  a gauze  sack,  or  any  vessel  in  which  they  can  be  kept  and 
carried  to  the  hive,  which  should  be  set  upon  a table  a little 


Bee-Keeping. 


157 


raised  on  one  side  to  allow  their  passage.  If  seen  before  they 
alight,  they  may  often  be  secured  by  drawing  a large  woolen 
stocking  upon  the  end  of  a pole  and  holding  it  up  among  them, 
as  they  are  apt  to  consider  it  a favorable  object  on  which  to 
collect. 

“ When  a hive  yields  more  than  two  swarms,  these  should 
uniformly  be  joined  to  others  that  are  weak,  as,  from  the  late- 
ness of  the  season  and  deficiency  in  number,  they  will  other- 
wise perish.  This  junction  is  easily  formed,  by  inverting  at 
night  the  hive  in  which  they  are,  and  placing  over  it  the  one 
you  intend  them  to  enter.  They  soon  ascend,  and  apparently 
with  no  opposition  from  the  former  possessors.  Should  the 
weather  for  some  days  after  swarming  he  unfavorable  for  the 
bees  going  out,  they  must  be  fed  with  care  until  it  clears  up, 
otherwise  the  young  swarm  will  run  great  risk  of  dying.” 

Some  recommend  drawing  off  swarms  without  waiting  for 
them  to  set  forth  of  their  own  accord.  We  find  the  process 
thus  described  in  the  Southern  Homestead : 

“Those  who  are  using  a common  hive  when  desiring  to 
draw  off  a swarm,  should  let  the  hive  be  turned  bottom  up- 
ward, and  the  new  hive  set  upon  it ; strike  lightly  upon  the 
lower  hive,  and  many  of  the  bees  will  ascend  into  the  upper 
hive  ; when  a sufficient  number  has  collected  in  the  new  hive 
for  a swarm,  take  it  off  and  set  it  upon  the  bench,  and  return 
the  old  one  to  its  former  position.  In  doing  this,  to  insure 
success,  it  is  necessary  that  one  of  the  queens  should  accompany 
the  new  swarm,  which  may  be  known  in  the  course  of  a day 
or  two,  for  if  they  have  no  queen,  they  will  not  stay  in  the 
new  hive,  but  will  return  to  the  old  one ; but  if  they  have  a 
queen,  they  soon  manifest  a disposition  to  commence  work,  and 
in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours  some  of  the  bees  may  be 
seen  standing  near  the  entrance  of  the  hive,  amusing  themselves 
by  raising  their  bodies  to  the  full  length  of  their  legs,  and  giv- 
ing their  wings  a rapid  motion,  making  a steady  buzzing 
noise.  This  may  be  considered  as  an  indication  of  their  satis- 
faction and  the  success  of  the  operation.  Some  consider  mid- 


158 


Domestic  Animals. 


day  the  most  favorable  time  for  doing  this ; others  again  prefer 
the  evening — but  either  will  answer,  and  the  trouble  attending 
is  not  greater  than  that  of  hiving  them  when  the  swarms  are 
allowed  to  come  out  in  the  common  manner,  and  the  danger  of 
having  them  go  off  is  avoided.  Another  very  great  advantage 
of  this  method  is,  the  young  swarms  commence  working  early, 
by  which  they  are  more  likely  to  lay  up  sufficient  food  for  the 
winter.” 

2.  Bobbing  the  Hives. — The  old  practice,  still  followed  by 
many,  is  to  kill  the  bees  by  suffocation,  whenever  the  most 
favorable  time  has  arrived  for  taking  the  honey.  To  suffocate 
the  bees,  the  hive  is  inverted  over  an  empty  hive  or  a hole  in 
the  ground  in  which  some  rags  smeared  with  sulphur  are  burn- 
ing. The  bees  drop  down  and  are  buried  to  prevent  resuscita- 
tion. This  is  believed  by  some  shrewd  and  experienced  bee- 
keepers to  be  the  most  profitable  if  not  the  most  humane  plan. 

Polish  apiarists  cut  out  the  comb  annually  to  lessen  the 
tendency  to  swarming,  and  thus  obtain  the  largest  amount  of 
honey.  In  sectional  hives  it  is  readily  taken  out  without  killing 
the  bees ; and  where  these  improved  hives,  as  they  are  called, 
are  not  used,  the  comb  may  be  cut  out  by  merely  stupefying 
the  bees  with  sulphur  or  tobacco  smoke.  The  time  for  taking 
up  hives  depends  somewhat  upon  the  season  and  pasturage; 
but  the  quantity  of  honey  does  not  generally  increase  after  the 
first  of  September. 

3.  Wintering. — To  winter  safely  a swarm  of  bees,  thirty 
pounds  of  honey  are  considered  requisite.  Only  strong  swarms 
are  profitable  to  winter ; therefore  those  that  are  found  in  the 
fall  to  be  weak  in  numbers  and  with  little  honey  had  better  be 
taken  up.  In  the  northern  portions  of  the  United  States  means 
are  generally  used  to  protect  the  swarms  in  winter,  by  removal 
to  some  cool  and  dry  out-house  or  cellar ; but  many  apiarists 
contend  that  this  practice  is  not  only  useless  but  hurtful,  and 
that  hives  should  not  be  removed  from  their  usual  situations. 

4.  Feeding. — Bees  are  sometimes  fed,  when  not  able  to  sup- 
ply their  own  wants,  with  a syrup  made  by  dissolving  brown 


Bee-Keeping. 


159 


sugar  in  water  and  then  boiling  it  to  evaporate  the  water. 
Honey  is  the  best  food,  but  is  generally  (unless  “ Southern”  or 
West  India  honey  he  used)  too  expensive ; and,  in  fact,  as  a 
matter  of  profit,  feeding  should  never  he  attempted. 

5.  Killing  the  Drones . — Knowing  that  the  drones  consume 
an  immense  amount  of  honey  without  producing  any,  and  be- 
lieving that  a few  of  them  will  answer  all  the  purposes  required, 
Mr.  P.  J.  Mahan,  of  Philadelphia,  recommends  getting  rid  of 
them,  and  thus  saving  the  honey  that  they  would  consume. 
His  plan  for  accomplishing  this  is  to  cut  out  the  comb  contain- 
ing the  cells  in  which  they  are  to  hatch.  This,  he  says,  is  dif- 
ficult in  the  common  or  box-hive  and  quite  impossible  in  nearly 
all  patent  hives;  but  quite  easy  in  Rev.  L.  L.  Langstroth’s 
Movable  Comb  Hive,  in  which  the  combs  are  built  in  a frame, 
similar  to  a slate  or  a picture  in  a frame,  which  being  suspend- 
ed on  a narrow  rabbet  do  not  touch  or  come  in  contact  with 
the  hive  at  the  top,  bottom,  or  sides.  Old  combs  can  be  put 
into  the  frames  and  be  given  to  the  bees  to  fill  for  their  own 
use  or  for  breeding  combs. 

“ By  cutting  out  the  combs  referred  to,”  Mr.  Mahan  contin- 
ues, uthe  bee-keeper  makes  a saving  of  all  the  honey  fed  to 
them  before  they  are  matured;  the  time  occupied  by  the  bees 
in  feeding  and  nursing  them ; and  last,  though  not  least,  assum- 
ing one  foot  as  the  average,  which  is  capable  of  producing  over 
4,000  drones,  by  destroying  this  there  is  space  sufficient  to  build 
combs  in  which  7,200  cells  for  hatching  the  workers  will  be 
erected ; which,  as  we  have  done  away  with  the  drones,  is  fully 
equal  to  an  accession  of  14,400  working  bees.”* 

This  matter  is  certainly  worthy  of  the  attention  of  bee-keep- 
ers, and  should  be  fully  investigated.! 

* Southern  Planter. 

t A large  portion  of  the  matter  in  th's  chap  «er,  not  credited  to  other  sources, 
has  been  condensed  from  the  excellent  articles  on  “ Bees  and  Bee-Keeping,” 
in  the  “ New  American  Encyclopedia.” 


APPENDIX 


HORSE-TAMING-RAREY’S  SYSTEM. 

1.  The  Theory. 

The  one  principle  which  you  must  establish  firmly  in  your  mind,  and  which 
Is  so  essential  in  horse-taming  that  it  is  almost  the  corner-stone  of  the  theory 
is  the  law  of  kindness.  Next  to  kindness  you  must  have  patience,  and  next  to 
patience  indomitable  perseverance.  With  these  qualities  in  us,  and  not  pos- 
sessing fear  or  anger,  we  undertake  to  tame  horses,  with  perfect  assurance  of 
success,  if  we  use  the  proper  means.  The  horse  receives  instruction  in,  and 
by  the  use  of,  four  of  his  senses— namely,  seeing,  hearing,  smelling,  and  feel- 
ing. You  must  remember  that  the  horse  is  a dumb  brute,  has  not  the  faculty 
of  reasoning  on  experiments  that  you  make  on  him,  but  is  governed  by  instinct. 
In  a natural  state  he  is  afraid  of  man,  and  never,  until  you  teach  him  that  you 
do  not  intend  to  hurt  him,  will  that  fear  cease— we  mean  that  wild,  natural  fear 
— for  you  must  have  him  fear  you  as  well  as  love  you,  before  you  can  absorb  his 
attention  as  much  as  is  necessary  to  break  him  to  your  liking.  It  is  a principle 
in  the  nature  of  a horse  not  to  offer  resistance  to  our  wishes,  if  made  known  in 
a way  that  he  understands,  and  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  his  nature. 

In  subjugating  the  horse,  we  must  make  a powerful  appeal  to  his  intelligence. 
This  can  only  be  done  by  a physical  operation.  It  is  an  undisputed  fact  that 
the  battles  of  all  animals  (except  such  as  are  garnished  with  horns)  are  fought 
by  seizing  eaeh  other  by  the  throat.  A dog  that  has  been  thus  held  by  his  an- 
tagonist for  a few  minutes,  on  being  released,  is  often  so  thoroughly  cowed  that 
no  human  artifice  can  induce  him  to  again  resume  the  unequal  contest.  This 
is  the  principle  upon  which  horse-taming  is  founded. 

2.  Practical  Rules. 

1.  Choking— First  Method.— Choking  a horse  is  the  first  process  in  taming, 
and  is  but  the  beginning  of  his  education.  By  its  operation  a horse  becomes 
docile,  and  will  thereafter  receive  any  instruction  which  he  can  be  made  to  un- 
derstand. Teaching  the  animal  to  lie  down  at  our  bidding,  tends  to  keep  him 
permanently  cured,  as  it  is  a perpetual  reminder  of  his  subdued  condition. 

It  requires  a good  deal  of  practice  to  tame  a h^rse  successfully ; also  a nice 


162 


Appendix 


judgment  to  know  when  he  is  choked  sufficiency,  as  there  is  a bare  possibility 
that  he  might  get  more  than  would  be  good  for  him.  We  advise  persons  not 
perfectly  familiar  with  a horse  to  resort  rather  to  the  strapping  and  throwing- 
down  process  (unless  he  is  very  vicious)  described  below ; this,  in  ordinary 
cases,  will  prove  successful.  It  is  the  fault  of  most  people  who  have  owned  a 
horse  to  imagine  that  they  are  expert  in  his  management ; while,  on  the  con- 
trary, many  professional  horsemen  are  the  very  worst  parties  to  attempt  a sub- 
jugation. Unless  a man  have  a good  disposition,  he  need  not  attempt  horse- 
taming. 

In  practicing  the  method  exhibited  in  fig.  55,  retire  with  the  animal  to  be 
operated  upon  into  a close  stable,  with  plenty  of  litter  upon  the  floor  (tan-bark 

or  sawdust  is  preferable).  In 
the  first  place  fasten  up  the  left 
fore-leg  with  the  arm  strap,  in 
such  a manner  that  it  will  be 
permanently  secured.  Then 
take  abroad  strap  and  buckle 
and  pass  it  around  the  neck 
just  back  of  the  jaw-bone. 
Draw  the  strap  as  tight  as 
possible,  so  tight  as  to  almost 
arrest  the  horse’s  breathing. 
The  strap  must  not  be  buck- 
led, but  held  in  this  position 
to  prevent  slipping  back.  The 
animal  will  struggle  for  a few 
minutes,  when  he  will  become 
perfectly  quiet,  overpowered 
by  a sense  of  suffocation ; the 
veins  in  his  head  will  swell ; his  eyes  lose  their  fire ; his  knees  totter  and  be- 
come weak  ; a slight  vertigo  will  ensue,  and  growing  gradually  exhausted,  by 
backing  him  around  the  stable,  he  will  come  down  on  his  knees,  in  which  po- 
sition it  is  an  easy  matter  to  push  him  on  his  side,  when  his  throat  should  be 
released.  Now  pat  and  rub  him  gently  for  about  twenty  minutes,  when,  in 
most  instances,  he  will  be  subdued.  It  is  only  in  extreme  cases  necessary  to 
repeat  the  operation  of  choking.  The  next  lesson  is  to  teach  him  to  lie  down 
which  is  described  in  the  account  of  the  fourth  method  of  taming.  No  horse 
can  effectually  resist  the  terrible  effects  of  being  choked. 

It  must  be  constantly  borne  in  mind,  that  the  operator  must  not  be  boisterous 
or  violent,  and  that  the  greatest  possible  degree  of  kindness  is  absolutely  es- 
sential. When  the  horse  is  prostrate,  he  should  be  soothed  until  his  eyes  show 
that  he  has  become  perfectly  tranquil. 

2.  Second  Method.— The  plan  described  in  fig.  56  is  very  simple,  though  not 
as  expeditious  as  the  previous  one.  Buckle  or  draw  a strap  tight  around  the 
neck,  lift  a fore-leg,  and  fasten  around  it  the  opposite  end  of  the  strap,  the 
shorter  the  better.  In  the  engraving,  for  the  sake  of  clearness,  the  strap  is 


Appendix 


163 


represented  too  long.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  this  plan  the  horse  is  made  the 
Instrument  by  which  the  punishment  is  inflicted.  When  he  attempts  to  put 


his  foot  down,  his  head  goes  with  it,  and  he  thus  chokes  himself.  Care  should 
be  taken  that  he  does  not  pitch  on  his  head,  and  thus  endanger  his  neck. 

3.  Third  Method . — Secure  the  horse  with  a stout  halter  to  the  manger.  If 
extremely  unruly,  muz- 
zle him.  Sooth  him 
with  the  hands  for  a 
few  minutes,  until  he 
becomes  somewhat  pa- 
cified. Then  seize  him 
by  the  throat  (as  in  fig. 

57),  close  to  the  jaw- 
bone, with  the  right 
hand,  and  by  the  mane 
with  the  left.  Now  forc- 
ibly compress  his  wind- 
pipe until  he  becomes 
so  exhausted  that,  by 
lightly  kicking  him  on 
the  fore  legs,  he  will  lie 
down,  after  which  he 
should  be  treated  as 
previously  described.  This  process  requires  courage  in  the  operator,  and  alse 
great  muscular  strength. 

4.  Fourth  Method.— The  horse  to  be  operated  upon  should  be  led  into  a close 
stable.  The  opt>._tor  should  be  previously  provided  with  a stout  leather  hal- 
ter ; a looped  strap  to  slip  over  the  animal’s  knee ; a strong  surcingle,  and  a 
long  and  short  str^p— the  first  to  fasten  round  the  fore-foot  which  is  at  liberty. 


Fig.  57. 


164 


Appendix 


and  the  second  to  permanently  secure  the  leg  which  is  looped  up.  The  appli- 
cation of  the  straps  will  be  better  understood  by  reference  to  fig.  58. 

In  the  first  place,  if  the  horse  be  a biter,  muzzle  him ; then  lift  and  bend  his 
left  fore-leg,  and  slip  a loop  over  it.  The  leg  which  is  looped  up  must  be  secur- 
ed by  applying  the  short  strap,  buckling  it  around  the  pastern  joint  and  fore- 
arm ; next  put  on  the  surcingle,  and  fasten  the  long  strap  around  the  right  fore- 
foot, and  pass  the  end  through  a loop  attached  to  the  surcingle ; after  which 
fasten  on  a couple  of  thick  leather  knee-pads— these  can  be  put  on  in  the  first 
place  if  convenient.  The  pads  are  necessary,  as  some  horses  in  their  struggles 
come  violently  on  their  knees,  abrading  them  badly.  Now  take  a short  hold 
of  the  long  strap  with  your  right  hand ; stand  on  the  left  side  of  the  horse, 
grasp  the  bit  in  your  left  hand ; while  in  this  position  back  him  gently  about 
the  stable,  until  he  becomes  so  exhausted  as  to  exhibit  a desire  to  lie  down, 
which  desire  should  be  gratified  with  as  little  violence  as  possible ; bear  your 


Weight  firmly  against  the  shoulder  of  the  horse,  and  pull  steadily  on  the  strap 
with  your  right  hand  ; this  will  force  him  to  raise  his  foot,  which  should  be  im- 
mediately pulled  from  under  him.  This  is  the  critical  moment ; cling  to  the 
horse,  and  after  a few  struggles  he  will  lie  down.  In  bearing  against  the  ani- 
mal do  not  desist  from  pulling  and  pushing  until  you  have  him  on  his  side. 
Prevent  him  from  attempting  to  rise  by  pulling  his  head  toward  his  shoulder. 
As  soon  as  he  is  done  struggling,  caress  his  face  and  neck  ; also,  handle  every 
part  of  his  body,  and  render  yourself  as  familiar  as  possible.  After  he  has  lain 
quietly  for  twenty  minutes  let  him  rise,  and  immediately  repeat  the  operation, 
removing  the  straps  as  soon  as  he  is  down ; and  if  his  head  is  pulled  toward  his 
shoulder  it  is  impossible  for  him  to  get  up.  After  throwing  him  from  two  to 
five  times  the  animal  will  become  as  submissive  and  abject  as  a well-trained 
dog,  and  you  need  not  be  afraid  to  indulge  in  any  liberties  with  him.  A young 
horse  is  subdued  much  quicker  than  an  old  one,  as  his  habits  arc  not  confirm- 
ed. An  incorrigible  horse  should  have  two  lessons  a day ; about  the  fourth 


Appendix 


165 


lesson  he  will  be  permanently  conquered.  If  the  operation  is  repeated  several 
times,  he  can  be  made  to  lie  down  by  simply  lifting  up  his  fore-leg  and  repeat- 
ing the  words,  “ Lie  down,  sir,”  which  he  must  be  previously  made  familiar 
with. 

5.  Additional  Hints.— The  following  rules  will  serve  as  a guide  to  the  ama- 
teur operator,  and  should  be  strictly  observed  : 

First.  The  horse  must  not  be  forced  down  by  violence,  but  must  be  tired  out 
till  he  has  a strong  desire  to  lie  down. 

Second.  He  must  be  kept  quiet  on  the  ground  until  the  expression  of  the  eye 
shows  that  he  is  tranquillized,  which  invariably  takes  place  by  patiently  waiting 
and  gently  patting  the  horse. 

Third.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  throw  the  horse  upon  his  neck  when  bent, 
as  it  may  easily  be  broken. 

Fourth.  In  backing  him,  no  violence  must  be  used,  or  he  may  be  forced  on 
his  haunches,  and  his  back  broken. 

Fifth.  The  halter  and  off-rein  are  held  in  the  left  hand,  so  as  to  keep  the 
head  away  from  the  latter;  while,  if  the  horse  attempts  to  plunge,  the  halter  is 
drawn  tight,  when,  the  off-leg  being  raised,  the  animal  is  brought  on  his  knees, 
and  rendered  powerless  for  offensive  purposes. — New  York  Tribmns* 


INDEX 


A, 


A#s,  The 45 

Apiary , 152 

Buyers,  Hints  to 42 

Barns  and  Sheds 82 

Breeds,  Improvement  of 10S 

Breeding  In-and-in 109 

“ Hints  on 112 

Bee-Keeping 148 

Bee-Hive,  Wonders  of 148 

Bees,  Swarming  of 156 

“ General  Management  of 156 

C. 

Cattle,  Breeds  of 49 

“ Devon 51 

“ Hereford 53 

“ Sussex 54 

“ Ayrshire 54 

“ Welsh 55 

“ Irish 55 

“ Long  Horn 56 

“ Short  Horn 56 

“ Alderney 59 

“ Galloway 59 

“ Cream-Pot 60 

“ Points  of 61 

“ General  Management 65 

“ Weight  of  Live 71 

Calves,  Bearing 79 

Crossing  Breeds 110 

D. 

Diseases  of  Animals 114 

Duck,  The 143 

E. 

Ewe,  Anecdote  of 93 

F. 

Feeding  Horses 31 

“ Sheep 84 

“ Cattle 66 

“ Swine 104 

“ Fowls 134 


Fowl,  The  Domestic 11 S 

“ Spanish 119 

“ Dorking 121 

“ Polish 123 

“ Hamburg.. 124 

“ Dominique 126 

“ Leghorn 127 

“ Cochin  China Ig9 

“ Bantam 129 

“ Game 132 

“ Mongrel 132 

“ Accommodations  for 133 

“ Feeding 134 

“ The  Guinea 137 

G. 

Guinea  Fowl,  The 137 

Goose,  The 149 

H. 

Horse,  The  9 

Horse,  Breeds  of 10 

“ The  Eacer 11 

“ Arabian 12 

“ Morgan 14 

“ Canadian 16 

“ Norman 16 

“ Cleveland  Bay 19 

“ Conestoga Ii5 

“ Clydesdale 19 

“ Virginia 19 

“ Wild 26 

“ American  Trotting 20 

“ Points  of 21 

“ Color  of 26 

“ Howto  Feed 31 

“ General  Management  of  . . . 35 

“ Vices  and  Habits 38 

“ How  to  Tame 161 

Hives 152 

L. 

Lambs 88 

M. 

Mule,  The 46 

“ Trade  in  Kentucky 47 


168 


I NDEX 


PAGE 


P. 

Piggery 

. 107 

Poultry 

. 118 

u 

Pentalogue 

. 136 

Preparation  of  for  Market . 

. 946 

B. 

Sheep,  Breeds  of 

. 73 

“ 

Native 

. 74 

a 

Spanish  Merino 

. 74 

a 

Saxon  do 

. 76 

u 

New  Leicester 

. 76 

u 

South-Down 

. 78 

u 

Cheviot 

. 80 

u 

Lincoln 

. 81 

H 

Choice  of  Breed 

. 81 

it 

General  Management  of . . . 

. 82 

Value  of  to  the  Farmer 

, 92 

Swine, 

, Natural  History  of. , 

. 95 

PAGE 

Swine,  Opinions  respecting 97 

“ Breeds 98 

“ The  Land  Pike 99 

“ Chinese 99 

“ Berkshire 100 

“ Suffolk 101 

s‘  Essex 102 

“ Chester 102 

“ Points  of 1()4 

“ Feeding 104 

Stables 29 

Swarming 156 

T. 

Turkey 138 

Taming  Horses Ifit 

W. 

Water-Cure  for  Annaala 12S 


NEW  AND  STANDARD  BOOKS  ON 

Architecture,  Agriculture,  Field  Snorts,  & The  Horse, 


Alphabets,  Ornamental  & Fancy.  Geo.  E.  Woodward.  4to.  $6  GO 

Artistic  Drawing  Studies.  Geo.  E.  Woodward.  Quarto 6 00 

Breechloader,  The.  By  “Gloan.”  Illustrated 125 

Copley’s  Alphabets,  Plain  and  Ornamental 3 00 

Crack  Shot  (The  Rifle).  By  E.  C.  Barber.  Illustrated. . . . 1 25 

Cupper’s  Universal  Stair-Builder 2 50 

Dead  Shot  (The  Gun).  By  “Marksman.”  Illustrated 125 

Dog,  The.  By  Dinks,  Mayhew  and  Hutchinson 3 00 

Elliott’s  Lawn  and  Shade  Trees.  Illustrated 100 

Eveleth’s  School- House  Architecture.  Quarto 4 00 

Flax  Culture.  Paper 10 

Frank  Forester’s  American  Game.  Illustrated 150 

Frank  Forester’s  Field  Sports.  2 vols.  Illustrated 4 00 

Frank  Forester’s  Fish  and  Fishing.  100  Illustrations 2 50 

Frank  Forester’s  Horse  of  America.  2 vols. , 8vo 5 00 

Frank  Frest  er’s  Young  Sportsman’s  Manual.  Illustrated,  2 00 

Fuller’s  Forest  Tree  Culturist.  Fully  Illustrated 100 

Gan,  Rod,  and  Saddle.  Illustrated 100 

Harney’s  Barns,  Outbuildings,  and  Fences 4 00 

Horse  Portraiture— Breeding  and  Training  Trotters,  etc . . . 2 00 

How  to  Get  a Farm  and  Where  to  Find  One 1 00 

Husmann’s  Grapes  and  Wine.  Illustrated 100 

Hussey’s  National  Cottage  Architecture.  Quarto 4 00 

Jacques’  Garden,  Farm,  and  Barn-yard 1 50 

Jacques’  Manual  of  the  House.  (126  Designs) 1 00 

Lewis’  Practical  Poultry  Book.  100  Illustrations 1 50 

Miner’s  Domestic  Poultry  Book.  Illustrated 1 00 

Monckton’s  National  Carpenter  and  Joiner.  Quarto 5 00 

Monckton’s  National  Stair  Builder.  Quarto 5 00 

Our  Farm  of  Four  Acres.  12mo 60 

Phin’s  Open-Air  Grape  Culture.  New  edition 1 00 

Randall’s  Practical  Shepherd.  New  edition.  Illustrated..  2 00 

Rural  Church  Architecture.  (20  Designs) 4 00 

Ten  Acres  Enough.  New  edition.  Illustrated 100 

Thomery  System  of  Grape  Culture.  Flexible  cloth 30 

Todd’s  Young  Farmer’s  Manual.  3 vols Per  set,  4 50 

Vol.  1.  The  Farm  and  Workshop 1 50 

Vol.  2.  How  to  Make  Farming  Pay 1 50 

Vol.  3.  Wheat  Culture 1 50 

Trout  Culture.  By  J.  H.  Slack,  M.  D 1 00 

Wallace’s  American  Stud  Book.  1,000  pages,  8vo 10  00 

Wallace’s  American  Trotting  Register.  8vo 10  00 

Wheeler's  Homes  for  the  People.  Fully  Illustrated 2 00 

Wheeler’s  Rural  Homes.  Fully  Illustrated 1 50 

Willard’s  Practical  Butter  Book.  Illustrated 100 

Willard’s  Practical  Dairy  Husbandry.  Ills 3 00 

Woodward’s  Cottages  and  Farm-Houses.  188  Designs  and 

Plans  1 00 

Woodward's  Country  Homes.  150  Designs  and  Plans 100 

Woodward’s  Designs  for  the  Fret  Saw 50 

Woodward's  Graperies  and  Horticultural  Buildings 1 00 

Woodward’s  National  Architect.  Vol.  1.  (1,00  D esigns). . 7 50 
Woodward’s  National  Architect.  Vol.  2.  (100  Quarto  Plates)  7 50 
Woodward’s  Suburban  and  Country  Houses,  70  Designs 
and  Plans 1 00 

FOR  SALE  AT  ALL  BOOKSTORES. 


JENNY  JUNE’S 


AMERICAN  COOKERY  BOOK, 

CONTAINING 

UPWARDS  OF  TWELVE  HUNDRED  CHOICE 
AND  CAREFULLY-TESTED 

RECEIPTS, 

EMBRACING  ALL  THE  POPULAR  DISHES  AND  THE  BEST  RESULTS 
OF  MODERN  SCIENCE  REDUCED  TO  A SIMPLE 
AND  PRACTICAL  FORM.  ALSO, 

A CHAPTER  FOR  INVALIDS, 

ONE  FOR  INFANTS,  and 

ONE  ON  JEWISH  COOKERY. 

TOGETHER  WITH  A 

SUPPLEMENT  ON  CARVING, 

Illustrated  by  over  Forty  Engravings, 

AND  A VARIETY  OF  MISCELLANEOUS  RECEIPTS  OF  SPECIE  S» 
VALUE  TO  HOUSEKEEPERS  GENERALLY. 


BY  MRS.  J.  C.  OEOLY, 

(JENNIE  JUNE.) 

Author  of  “Talks  on  Woman's  Topics etc. 

» « « 

One  Voluia  12mo.  Handsomely  bonni  in  Black:  and  Gold.  Price  $1.50. 

TO  BE  SAD  AT  ALL  BOOKSTORES, 
or  sent  by  mail  to  any  address  on  receipt  of  price. 

TIIE  AMERICAN  NEWS  COMPANY, 

NEW  YOFX 


THE  AMERICAN  NEWS  COMPANY  ARE  AGENTS  FOR 


DICK’S  ENGLISH  CLASSICS. 


This  edition  is  the  Cheapest  and  Best.  It  has  Numerous  Illustrations, 
and  is  printed  on  good  paper  from  new,  clear  type,  and  is  in  all  respects 
the  Finest  Edition  in  the  market  for  the  price. 


Dick’s  Shakespeare. 

Containing  all  the  Plays,  the  whole  of  his  poems,  with  Memoir  and 

Portrait,  and  37  illustrations  by  Gilbert  Wilson,  &c.  Paper 60 

Cloth 1.25 


Dick’s  Byron. 

A new  edition  of  the  works  of  Lord  Byron.  480  pages,  16  illustrations 

by  F.  Gilbert.  Paper 50 

Cloth 1.00 

Dick’s  Scott. 

A new  edition  of  the  Poetical  Works  of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  Illustrated  by 

F.  Gilbert.  Paper 25 

Cloth 50 

Dick’s  Goldsmith. 

The  Works  of  Oliver  Goldsmith,  with  Memoir  and  Portrait.  New  and 

complete  illustrated  edition.  Paper 40 

Cloth 80 

Dick’s  Burns. 

This  new  and  complete  edition  of  the  Poetical  Works  of  Robert  Burns 
is  elaborately  illustrated,  and  contains  the  whole  of  the  Poems,  Life  and 

Correspondence  of  the  great  Scottish  Bard.  Paper 25 

Cloth 50 

Dick’s  Arabian  Nights. 

A new  translation,  complete,  with  numerous  illustrations.  Paper,  25 
Cloth 50 

Dick’s  Miiton. 

Milton’s  Works,  new  edition,  with  Memoirs,  Portrait,  and  Frontispiece. 

Paper 25 

Cloth 50 


Dick’s  Cowper. 

Cowper’s  Works,  new  edition,  with  Memoirs,  Portrait,  and  Frontis- 


oiece.  Paper 25 

Cloth 50 

Dick’s  Wordsworth. 

Wordsworth’s  Works,  new  edition,  with  numerous  illustrations. 

Paper 25 

Cloth  50 

Dick’s  Moore. 

Moore’s  Works,  now  edition,  with  numerous  illustrations.  Paper,  25 

Cloth 50 

Dick’s  Pope. 

A new  edition  of  the  Works  of  Alexander  Pope,  with  notes  by  Joseph 

Wharton,  D.  D.,  and  others.  Paper 50 

Cloth 1.00 

Dick’s  Thomson. 

A new  edition  of  the  Works  of  James  Thomson,  with  life  of  the  author. 

Paper 25 

Cloth 50 

Dick’s  Hemans. 

A new  edition  of  the  Works  of  Mrs.  Hemans,  with  Life  and  Portrait. 

Paper 40 

Cloth 80 


THE  AMERICAN  NEWS  COMPANY,  New  York, 
AGENTS  FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


THE 


EXCELSIOR  EDITION 

OF 

Mart  H Fiction, 

COMPRISING 

ROBINSON  CRUSOE,  6 Illustrations,  $1.00 

ARABIAN  NIGHTS,  ...  6 “ 1.00 

GULLIVER’S  TRAVELS,  - - 6 “ 1.00 

SWISS  FAMILY  ROBINSON,  ■ 6 " 1.00 

PILGRIM’S  PROGRESS,  - - 6 " 1.00 

DON  QUIXOTE,  ...  62  “ 1.00 

All  published  uniform  with  this  Volume. 


THE  AMERICAN  NEWS  COMPANY, 


NEW  YORK. 


